Cement-based batteries for renewable and sustainable energy storage toward an energy-efficient future

The cement-based battery introduced in this paper has potential to fundamentally change this paradigm by enabling the storage of electrical energy within concrete infrastructure. This innovation not only allows civil infrastructure to become self-sufficient, without relying on an external power supply, but also supports other power-dependent applications, such as street lighting, traffic signals, and electric vehicle charging. This review begins with a detailed introduction to the fundamental properties of battery and the design of concrete for infrastructure and battery applications. It is followed by a comprehensive discussion on potential civil infrastructures that integrate concrete batteries into structures, development of concrete electrodes, and advancements in cement-based electrolytes. The optimal configuration for the electrode geometry in a concrete battery involves seamless integration into concrete structures to minimize any negative effects on their appearance, functionalities, and load-bearing capabilities. Cement-based electrodes require conductive agents, which can be prepared by mixing, coating, or embedding conductive fillers in the non-conductive cement matrix. In contrast, metal-based electrodes exhibit excellent inherent electrical conductivity without additional conductive agents. Moreover, cement-based electrolytes typically incorporate inorganic/salt or organic/polymer additives to enhance ionic conductivity. The prospects are promising, particularly for the advancement of smart and sustainable cities aiming for 100 % energy self-sufficiency.