Global patterns of collective payments for ecosystem services and their degrees of commodification

This study provides a novel framework for analysing PES-related degrees of ES-commodification. The framework differentiates PES programs by the extent to which ES are traded in a market-like exchange in terms of four PES design components. We apply this framework to a newly compiled global dataset of collective PES programs (C-PES). C-PES address communities and groups instead of individuals and private entities and provide voluntary, conditional incentives for ES protection. Many conservationists see potentials for supporting participation and cooperation when linking common land titles with the PES approach instead of strengthening private land tenure regimes. We identified 29 C-PES cases with clusters in Central and Southeast Africa, Central America, and Southeast Asia. Particularly C-PES programs focusing on carbon or wildlife ES reach medium to high degrees of commodification, whereas schemes targeting biodiversity, watershed, or bundled ES show rather low to medium degrees of commodification. Our framework allows for a more nuanced study of the pluralism of PES designs and lays the foundation for further research on the differentiated role of ES-commodification for social-ecological outcomes.