IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v13y2020i9p2395-d356651.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Time-Varying Relationship between Crude Oil Price and Exchange Rate in the Context of Structural Breaks

Author

Listed:
  • Yue Liu

    (Department of International Economy and Trade, School of Economics and Management, Hunan Institute of Technology, Hengyang 421001, China)

  • Pierre Failler

    (Economics and Finance Group, Portsmouth Business School, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 3DE, UK)

  • Jiaying Peng

    (School of Economics, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China)

  • Yuhang Zheng

    (School of Finance, Guangdong University of Finance & Economics, Guangzhou 510320, China
    Collaborative Innovation Development Center of Pearl River Delta Science & Technology Finance Industry, Guangdong University of Finance & Economics, Guangzhou 510320, China)

Abstract

This paper examines the dynamic relationship between crude oil prices and the U.S. exchange rate within the structural break detection context. Based on monthly data from January 1996 to April 2019, this paper identifies structural breaks in movements of oil price and examines the dynamic relationship between crude oil prices and the U.S. exchange rate movement by introducing the economic policy uncertainty and using the TVP-VAR (Time-Varying Parameter-Vector Auto Regression ) model. Empirical results indicate that shocks to crude oil prices have immediate and short-term impacts on movements in the exchange rate which are emphasized during the confidence intervals of structural breaks. Oil price shocks and economic policy uncertainty are interrelated and influence movements in the U.S. exchange rate. Since the U.S. dollar is the main currency of the international oil market and the U.S. has become a major exporter of crude oil, the transmission of price shocks to the U.S. exchange rate becomes complicated. In most cases, the relationship between oil prices and the U.S. exchange rate movements is negative.

Suggested Citation

  • Yue Liu & Pierre Failler & Jiaying Peng & Yuhang Zheng, 2020. "Time-Varying Relationship between Crude Oil Price and Exchange Rate in the Context of Structural Breaks," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(9), pages 1-17, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:13:y:2020:i:9:p:2395-:d:356651
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/9/2395/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/9/2395/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Mohsen Bahmani-Oskooee & Sujata Saha, 2019. "On the effects of policy uncertainty on stock prices," Journal of Economics and Finance, Springer;Academy of Economics and Finance, vol. 43(4), pages 764-778, October.
    2. Jain, Anshul & Biswal, P.C., 2016. "Dynamic linkages among oil price, gold price, exchange rate, and stock market in India," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 179-185.
    3. Reboredo, Juan C., 2012. "Modelling oil price and exchange rate co-movements," Journal of Policy Modeling, Elsevier, vol. 34(3), pages 419-440.
    4. Mehmet Balcilar & Rangan Gupta & Clement Kyei & Mark E. Wohar, 2016. "Does Economic Policy Uncertainty Predict Exchange Rate Returns and Volatility? Evidence from a Nonparametric Causality-in-Quantiles Test," Open Economies Review, Springer, vol. 27(2), pages 229-250, April.
    5. Coudert, Virginie & Mignon, Valérie, 2016. "Reassessing the empirical relationship between the oil price and the dollar," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 147-157.
    6. Volkov, Nikanor I. & Yuhn, Ky-hyang, 2016. "Oil price shocks and exchange rate movements," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 31(C), pages 18-30.
    7. Jebabli, Ikram & Arouri, Mohamed & Teulon, Frédéric, 2014. "On the effects of world stock market and oil price shocks on food prices: An empirical investigation based on TVP-VAR models with stochastic volatility," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 66-98.
    8. You, Wanhai & Guo, Yawei & Zhu, Huiming & Tang, Yong, 2017. "Oil price shocks, economic policy uncertainty and industry stock returns in China: Asymmetric effects with quantile regression," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 1-18.
    9. Kumar, Satish, 2019. "Asymmetric impact of oil prices on exchange rate and stock prices," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 41-51.
    10. Brahmasrene, Tantatape & Huang, Jui-Chi & Sissoko, Yaya, 2014. "Crude oil prices and exchange rates: Causality, variance decomposition and impulse response," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 407-412.
    11. Hodrick, Robert J & Prescott, Edward C, 1997. "Postwar U.S. Business Cycles: An Empirical Investigation," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 29(1), pages 1-16, February.
    12. Bartsch, Zachary, 2019. "Economic policy uncertainty and dollar-pound exchange rate return volatility," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 98(C), pages 1-1.
    13. Mollick, André Varella & Sakaki, Hamid, 2019. "Exchange rates, oil prices and world stock returns," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 585-602.
    14. De Vita, Glauco & Trachanas, Emmanouil, 2016. "‘Nonlinear causality between crude oil price and exchange rate: A comparative study of China and India’ — A failed replication (negative Type 1 and Type 2)," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 150-160.
    15. Basher, Syed Abul & Haug, Alfred A. & Sadorsky, Perry, 2012. "Oil prices, exchange rates and emerging stock markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(1), pages 227-240.
    16. Golub, Stephen S, 1983. "Oil Prices and Exchange Rates," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 93(371), pages 576-593, September.
    17. Jushan Bai & Pierre Perron, 1998. "Estimating and Testing Linear Models with Multiple Structural Changes," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 66(1), pages 47-78, January.
    18. Jawadi, Fredj & Louhichi, Waël & Ameur, Hachmi Ben & Cheffou, Abdoulkarim Idi, 2016. "On oil-US exchange rate volatility relationships: An intraday analysis," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 329-334.
    19. Troster, Victor & Shahbaz, Muhammad & Uddin, Gazi Salah, 2018. "Renewable energy, oil prices, and economic activity: A Granger-causality in quantiles analysis," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 440-452.
    20. Kang, Wensheng & Ratti, Ronald A., 2013. "Oil shocks, policy uncertainty and stock market return," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 26(C), pages 305-318.
    21. Sun, Xinxin & Lu, Xinsheng & Yue, Gongzheng & Li, Jianfeng, 2017. "Cross-correlations between the US monetary policy, US dollar index and crude oil market," Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, Elsevier, vol. 467(C), pages 326-344.
    22. Scott R. Baker & Nicholas Bloom & Steven J. Davis, 2016. "Measuring Economic Policy Uncertainty," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 131(4), pages 1593-1636.
    23. Kido, Yosuke, 2016. "On the link between the US economic policy uncertainty and exchange rates," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 144(C), pages 49-52.
    24. Prasad Bal, Debi & Narayan Rath, Badri, 2015. "Nonlinear causality between crude oil price and exchange rate: A comparative study of China and India," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 149-156.
    25. Gaoke Liao & Zhenghui Li & Ziqing Du & Yue Liu, 2019. "The Heterogeneous Interconnections between Supply or Demand Side and Oil Risks," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(11), pages 1-17, June.
    26. Huang, Zhehao & Liao, Gaoke & Li, Zhenghui, 2019. "Loaning scale and government subsidy for promoting green innovation," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 144(C), pages 148-156.
    27. Vincent Brémond & Emmanuel Hache & Tovonony Razafindrabe, 2015. "On the link between oil price and exchange rate : A time-varying VAR parameter approach," Working Papers hal-03206684, HAL.
    28. Fenghua Wen & Jihong Xiao & Chuangxia Huang & Xiaohua Xia, 2018. "Interaction between oil and US dollar exchange rate: nonlinear causality, time-varying influence and structural breaks in volatility," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 50(3), pages 319-334, January.
    29. Chang, Hsiao-Fen & Huang, Liang-Chou & Chin, Ming-Chin, 2013. "Interactive relationships between crude oil prices, gold prices, and the NT–US dollar exchange rate—A Taiwan study," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 63(C), pages 441-448.
    30. Andrews, Donald W K & Monahan, J Christopher, 1992. "An Improved Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimator," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 60(4), pages 953-966, July.
    31. Jones, Charles M & Kaul, Gautam, 1996. "Oil and the Stock Markets," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 51(2), pages 463-491, June.
    32. Virginie Coudert & Cécile Couharde & Valérie Mignon, 2011. "Does Euro or Dollar Pegging Impact the Real Exchange Rate? The Case of Oil and Commodity Currencies," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 34(9), pages 1557-1592, September.
    33. Yousefi, Ayoub & Wirjanto, Tony S., 2003. "Exchange rate of the US dollar and the J curve: the case of oil exporting countries," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 25(6), pages 741-765, November.
    34. Apergis, Nicholas & Miller, Stephen M., 2009. "Do structural oil-market shocks affect stock prices?," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(4), pages 569-575, July.
    35. Jiang, Jiaqi & Gu, Rongbao, 2016. "Asymmetrical long-run dependence between oil price and US dollar exchange rate—Based on structural oil shocks," Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, Elsevier, vol. 456(C), pages 75-89.
    36. Xu, Yang & Han, Liyan & Wan, Li & Yin, Libo, 2019. "Dynamic link between oil prices and exchange rates: A non-linear approach," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    37. Chen, Hongtao & Liu, Li & Wang, Yudong & Zhu, Yingming, 2016. "Oil price shocks and U.S. dollar exchange rates," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1036-1048.
    38. McLeod, Roger C.D. & Haughton, Andre Yone, 2018. "The value of the US dollar and its impact on oil prices: Evidence from a non-linear asymmetric cointegration approach," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 61-69.
    39. Chen, Liming & Du, Ziqing & Hu, Zhihao, 2020. "Impact of economic policy uncertainty on exchange rate volatility of China," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 32(C).
    40. Cong, Rong-Gang & Wei, Yi-Ming & Jiao, Jian-Lin & Fan, Ying, 2008. "Relationships between oil price shocks and stock market: An empirical analysis from China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 36(9), pages 3544-3553, September.
    41. Mensah, Lord & Obi, Pat & Bokpin, Godfred, 2017. "Cointegration test of oil price and us dollar exchange rates for some oil dependent economies," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 304-311.
    42. Fenghua Wen & Yupei Zhao & Minzhi Zhang & Chunyan Hu, 2019. "Forecasting realized volatility of crude oil futures with equity market uncertainty," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 51(59), pages 6411-6427, December.
    43. Turhan, M. Ibrahim & Sensoy, Ahmet & Hacihasanoglu, Erk, 2014. "A comparative analysis of the dynamic relationship between oil prices and exchange rates," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 32(C), pages 397-414.
    44. Beckmann, Joscha & Czudaj, Robert L. & Arora, Vipin, 2020. "The relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: Revisiting theory and evidence," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    45. Giorgio E. Primiceri, 2005. "Time Varying Structural Vector Autoregressions and Monetary Policy," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 72(3), pages 821-852.
    46. Ewing, Bradley T. & Malik, Farooq, 2017. "Modelling asymmetric volatility in oil prices under structural breaks," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 63(C), pages 227-233.
    47. Yang, Lu & Cai, Xiao Jing & Hamori, Shigeyuki, 2017. "Does the crude oil price influence the exchange rates of oil-importing and oil-exporting countries differently? A wavelet coherence analysis," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 536-547.
    48. Hussain, Muntazir & Zebende, Gilney Figueira & Bashir, Usman & Donghong, Ding, 2017. "Oil price and exchange rate co-movements in Asian countries: Detrended cross-correlation approach," Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, Elsevier, vol. 465(C), pages 338-346.
    49. Wen, Fenghua & Xu, Longhao & Ouyang, Guangda & Kou, Gang, 2019. "Retail investor attention and stock price crash risk: Evidence from China," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 65(C).
    50. Tiwari, Aviral Kumar & Albulescu, Claudiu Tiberiu, 2016. "Oil price and exchange rate in India: Fresh evidence from continuous wavelet approach and asymmetric, multi-horizon Granger-causality tests," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 272-283.
    51. Jarque, Carlos M. & Bera, Anil K., 1980. "Efficient tests for normality, homoscedasticity and serial independence of regression residuals," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 6(3), pages 255-259.
    52. Jushan Bai & Pierre Perron, 2003. "Computation and analysis of multiple structural change models," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 18(1), pages 1-22.
    53. Nusair, Salah A. & Olson, Dennis, 2019. "The effects of oil price shocks on Asian exchange rates: Evidence from quantile regression analysis," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 44-63.
    54. Qiang Ji & Syed Jawad Hussain Shahzad & Elie Bouri & Muhammad Tahir Suleman, 2020. "Dynamic structural impacts of oil shocks on exchange rates: lessons to learn," Journal of Economic Structures, Springer;Pan-Pacific Association of Input-Output Studies (PAPAIOS), vol. 9(1), pages 1-19, December.
    55. Kang, Sang Hoon & Kang, Sang-Mok & Yoon, Seong-Min, 2009. "Forecasting volatility of crude oil markets," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(1), pages 119-125, January.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Rufei Zhang & Haizhen Zhang & Wang Gao & Ting Li & Shixiong Yang, 2022. "The Dynamic Effects of Oil Price Shocks on Exchange Rates—From a Time-Varying Perspective," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(14), pages 1-20, July.
    2. Wu, Tao & An, Feng & Gao, Xiangyun & Wang, Ze, 2023. "Hidden causality between oil prices and exchange rates," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C).
    3. Taufeeque Ahmad Siddiqui & Haseen Ahmed & Mohammad Naushad & Uzma Khan, 2023. "The Relationship between Oil Prices and Exchange Rate: A Systematic Literature Review," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 13(3), pages 566-578, May.
    4. Li, Xin & Umar, Muhammad & Zhu, Cun-Bin & Oprean-Stan, Camelia, 2023. "Can geopolitical risk stably predict crude oil prices? A multi-dimensional perspective," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    5. Witold Orzeszko, 2021. "Nonlinear Causality between Crude Oil Prices and Exchange Rates: Evidence and Forecasting," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(19), pages 1-16, September.
    6. Wang, Yijing & Geng, Xueqing & Guo, Kun, 2022. "The influence of international oil price fluctuation on the exchange rate of countries along the “Belt and Road”," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    7. Thobekile Qabhobho, 2023. "Assessing the Asymmetric Effect of Local Realized Exchange Rate Volatility and Implied Volatilities in Energy Market on Exchange Rate Returns in BRICS," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 13(2), pages 231-239, March.
    8. Karasu, Seçkin & Altan, Aytaç, 2022. "Crude oil time series prediction model based on LSTM network with chaotic Henry gas solubility optimization," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 242(C).
    9. César Castro & Rebeca Jiménez-Rodríguez, 2020. "Dynamic interactions between oil price and exchange rate," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 15(8), pages 1-20, August.
    10. Nikolaos Rodousakis & George Soklis & Theodore Tsekeris, 2022. "A Supply and Use Model for Estimating the Contribution of Costs to Energy Prices," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(19), pages 1-10, September.
    11. Kyriaki-Argyro Tsioptsia & Eleni Zafeiriou & Dimitrios Niklis & Nikolaos Sariannidis & Constantin Zopounidis, 2022. "The Corporate Economic Performance of Environmentally Eligible Firms Nexus Climate Change: An Empirical Research in a Bayesian VAR Framework," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(19), pages 1-16, October.
    12. Thobekile Qabhobho & Anokye M. Adam & Anthony Adu-Asare Idun & Emmanuel Asafo-Adjei & Ebenezer Boateng, 2023. "Exploring the Time-varying Connectedness and Contagion Effects among Exchange Rates of BRICS, Energy Commodities, and Volatilities," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 13(2), pages 272-283, March.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Albulescu, Claudiu Tiberiu & Ajmi, Ahdi Noomen, 2021. "Oil price and US dollar exchange rate: Change detection of bi-directional causal impact," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 100(C).
    2. Mustafa Kocoglu & Phouphet Kyophilavong & Ashar Awan & So Young Lim, 2023. "Time-varying causality between oil price and exchange rate in five ASEAN economies," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 56(2), pages 1007-1031, April.
    3. Kyophilavong, Phouphet & Abakah, Emmanuel Joel Aikins & Tiwari, Aviral Kumar, 2023. "Cross-spectral coherence and co-movement between WTI oil price and exchange rate of Thai Baht," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 80(C).
    4. Qiang Ji & Syed Jawad Hussain Shahzad & Elie Bouri & Muhammad Tahir Suleman, 2020. "Dynamic structural impacts of oil shocks on exchange rates: lessons to learn," Journal of Economic Structures, Springer;Pan-Pacific Association of Input-Output Studies (PAPAIOS), vol. 9(1), pages 1-19, December.
    5. Chatziantoniou, Ioannis & Elsayed, Ahmed H. & Gabauer, David & Gozgor, Giray, 2023. "Oil price shocks and exchange rate dynamics: Evidence from decomposed and partial connectedness measures for oil importing and exporting economies," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 120(C).
    6. Chowdhury, Kushal Banik & Garg, Bhavesh, 2022. "Has COVID-19 intensified the oil price–exchange rate nexus?," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 280-298.
    7. Jiang, Yong & Ren, Yi-Shuai & Narayan, Seema & Ma, Chao-Qun & Yang, Xiao-Guang, 2022. "Heterogeneity dependence between oil prices and exchange rate: Evidence from a parametric test of Granger causality in quantiles," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 62(C).
    8. Kumeka, Terver Theophilus & Uzoma-Nwosu, Damian Chidozie & David-Wayas, Maria Onyinye, 2022. "The effects of COVID-19 on the interrelationship among oil prices, stock prices and exchange rates in selected oil exporting economies," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C).
    9. Wen, Danyan & Liu, Li & Ma, Chaoqun & Wang, Yudong, 2020. "Extreme risk spillovers between crude oil prices and the U.S. exchange rate: Evidence from oil-exporting and oil-importing countries," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 212(C).
    10. Fasanya, Ismail O. & Adekoya, Oluwasegun B. & Adetokunbo, Abiodun M., 2021. "On the connection between oil and global foreign exchange markets: The role of economic policy uncertainty," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 72(C).
    11. Beckmann, Joscha & Czudaj, Robert L. & Arora, Vipin, 2020. "The relationship between oil prices and exchange rates: Revisiting theory and evidence," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    12. Ahmad, Wasim & Prakash, Ravi & Uddin, Gazi Salah & Chahal, Rishman Jot Kaur & Rahman, Md. Lutfur & Dutta, Anupam, 2020. "On the intraday dynamics of oil price and exchange rate: What can we learn from China and India?," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    13. Xu, Yang & Han, Liyan & Wan, Li & Yin, Libo, 2019. "Dynamic link between oil prices and exchange rates: A non-linear approach," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    14. Kisswani, Khalid M. & Elian, Mohammad I., 2021. "Analyzing the (a)symmetric impacts of oil price, economic policy uncertainty, and global geopolitical risk on exchange rate," The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, Elsevier, vol. 24(C).
    15. Jiang, Yonghong & Feng, Qidi & Mo, Bin & Nie, He, 2020. "Visiting the effects of oil price shocks on exchange rates: Quantile-on-quantile and causality-in-quantiles approaches," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 52(C).
    16. Marek Szturo & Bogdan Włodarczyk & Ireneusz Miciuła & Karolina Szturo, 2021. "The Essence of Relationships between the Crude Oil Market and Foreign Currencies Market Based on a Study of Key Currencies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(23), pages 1-17, November.
    17. Nusair, Salah A. & Olson, Dennis, 2019. "The effects of oil price shocks on Asian exchange rates: Evidence from quantile regression analysis," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 44-63.
    18. Das, Debojyoti & Kannadhasan, M., 2020. "The asymmetric oil price and policy uncertainty shock exposure of emerging market sectoral equity returns: A quantile regression approach," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 563-581.
    19. Alam, Md. Samsul & Shahzad, Syed Jawad Hussain & Ferrer, Román, 2019. "Causal flows between oil and forex markets using high-frequency data: Asymmetries from good and bad volatility," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    20. Albulescu, Claudiu Tiberiu & Demirer, Riza & Raheem, Ibrahim D. & Tiwari, Aviral Kumar, 2019. "Does the U.S. economic policy uncertainty connect financial markets? Evidence from oil and commodity currencies," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 83(C), pages 375-388.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:13:y:2020:i:9:p:2395-:d:356651. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.