IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/osf/osfxxx/jc6ks_v2.html
   My bibliography  Save this paper

Widespread Illegal Advertising of Loot Boxes and Social Casino Games in Belgium: Empowered by the EU Digital Services Act to Assess Compliance Using Meta’s Ad Repository

Author

Listed:
  • Xiao, Leon Y.

    (IT University of Copenhagen)

  • Petrovskaya, Elena
  • Khoo, Nicole
  • Denoo, Maarten

    (KU Leuven)

  • Roberts, Amanda

Abstract

Loot boxes and social casino mechanics are gambling-like products inside video games providing random results in exchange for real-world money. These products may cause harm to consumers, e.g., children and adults experiencing gambling harms. Most countries do not regulate these mechanics as gambling because the random rewards do not possess real-world monetary value as defined by law. Conversely, Belgium uniquely regulates both as unlicensed and therefore illegal forms of gambling; offering these products is a criminal offence. However, this ‘ban’ has not been enforced due to the regulator lacking resources, so these products remain widely available. We investigated whether, beyond failing to remove these products through inaction, companies are also paying to advertise them on social media to specifically attract Belgian users, which is an additional crime. We gained data access through the EU Digital Services Act requiring large online platforms (e.g., Facebook) to provide repositories for all advertising shown and associated audience demographic data. Concerningly, 172 popular games with illegal loot boxes and social casino games were widely and illegally advertised. We studied 1,574 advertisements, which were viewed over 4.5 million times by Belgian users, including 1.26 million times by under-21s. Many other ads we did not study were also widely circulated. The regulator should hold social media platforms and app stores accountable for conducting effective content moderation and ensuring illegal games and ads are not available to local users. More data access opportunities should be mandated by law in the EU and beyond to aid research and enforcement.

Suggested Citation

  • Xiao, Leon Y. & Petrovskaya, Elena & Khoo, Nicole & Denoo, Maarten & Roberts, Amanda, 2025. "Widespread Illegal Advertising of Loot Boxes and Social Casino Games in Belgium: Empowered by the EU Digital Services Act to Assess Compliance Using Meta’s Ad Repository," OSF Preprints jc6ks_v2, Center for Open Science.
    • Handle: RePEc:osf:osfxxx:jc6ks_v2
    DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/jc6ks_v2
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://osf.io/download/67c0cfe140849de9909fb3c1/
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.31219/osf.io/jc6ks_v2?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Xiao, Leon Y. & Henderson, Laura L. & Yang, Yuhan & Newall, Philip W. S., 2024. "Gaming the system: suboptimal compliance with loot box probability disclosure regulations in China," Behavioural Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, vol. 8(3), pages 590-616, July.
    2. repec:osf:osfxxx:xmwgy_v1 is not listed on IDEAS
    3. Xiao, Leon Y. & Deery, Callum & Petrovskaya, Elena & Park, Solip & Newall, Philip, 2025. "Widespread illegal video game advertising in the UK and South Korea: Many adverts not disclosing loot box presence found using Meta’s ad repository," OSF Preprints jqng5_v1, Center for Open Science.
    4. Shaun Stephen Garea & Aaron Drummond & James D. Sauer & Lauren C. Hall & Matthew Neil Williams, 2021. "Meta-analysis of the relationship between problem gambling, excessive gaming and loot box spending," International Gambling Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(3), pages 460-479, September.
    5. Nima Kordzadeh & Maryam Ghasemaghaei, 2022. "Algorithmic bias: review, synthesis, and future research directions," European Journal of Information Systems, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 31(3), pages 388-409, May.
    6. Sally M. Gainsbury & Nerilee Hing & Paul H. Delfabbro & Daniel L. King, 2014. "A taxonomy of gambling and casino games via social media and online technologies," International Gambling Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 14(2), pages 196-213, August.
    7. repec:plo:pone00:0206767 is not listed on IDEAS
    8. Xiao, Leon Y. & Lund, Mie, 2025. "Assessing compliance with UK loot box industry self-regulation on the Apple App Store: a longitudinal study on the implementation process," OSF Preprints xmwgy, Center for Open Science.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Xiao, Leon Y. & Petrovskaya, Elena & Khoo, Nicole & Denoo, Maarten & Roberts, Amanda, 2025. "Widespread Illegal Advertising of Loot Boxes and Social Casino Games in Belgium: Empowered by the EU Digital Services Act to Assess Compliance Using Meta’s Ad Repository," OSF Preprints jc6ks_v1, Center for Open Science.
    2. Monica Lestari Paramita & Maria Kasinidou & Styliani Kleanthous & Paolo Rosso & Tsvi Kuflik & Frank Hopfgartner, 2024. "Towards improving user awareness of search engine biases: A participatory design approach," Journal of the Association for Information Science & Technology, Association for Information Science & Technology, vol. 75(5), pages 581-599, May.
    3. Ilkka Vuorinen & Iina Savolainen & Anu Sirola & Atte Oksanen, 2024. "The impacts of stress and loneliness on gambling and gaming problems: A nationwide longitudinal study," International Journal of Social Psychiatry, , vol. 70(7), pages 1325-1332, November.
    4. repec:osf:osfxxx:s9xqt_v1 is not listed on IDEAS
    5. Koeder, Marco Josef & Tanaka, Ema, 2017. "Game of chance elements in free-to-play mobile games. A freemium business model monetization tool in need of self-regulation?," 28th European Regional ITS Conference, Passau 2017 169473, International Telecommunications Society (ITS).
    6. David Horneber & Sven Laumer, 2023. "Algorithmic Accountability," Business & Information Systems Engineering: The International Journal of WIRTSCHAFTSINFORMATIK, Springer;Gesellschaft für Informatik e.V. (GI), vol. 65(6), pages 723-730, December.
    7. Abdolmajid Erfani & Vanessa Frias-Martinez, 2023. "A fairness assessment of mobility-based COVID-19 case prediction models," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 18(10), pages 1-16, October.
    8. Koeder, Marco Josef & Tanaka, Ema & Mitomo, Hitoshi, 2018. ""Lootboxes" in digital games - A gamble with consumers in need of regulation? An evaluation based on learnings from Japan," 22nd ITS Biennial Conference, Seoul 2018. Beyond the boundaries: Challenges for business, policy and society 190385, International Telecommunications Society (ITS).
    9. Nerilee Hing & Cassandra K. Dittman & Alex M. T. Russell & Daniel L. King & Matthew Rockloff & Matthew Browne & Philip Newall & Nancy Greer, 2022. "Adolescents Who Play and Spend Money in Simulated Gambling Games Are at Heightened Risk of Gambling Problems," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(17), pages 1-15, August.
    10. Yang, Hui & Li, Dan & Hu, Peng, 2024. "Decoding algorithm fatigue: The role of algorithmic literacy, information cocoons, and algorithmic opacity," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 79(C).
    11. repec:osf:osfxxx:g5wd9_v1 is not listed on IDEAS
    12. Xiao, Leon Y. & Deery, Callum & Petrovskaya, Elena & Park, Solip & Newall, Philip, 2025. "Widespread illegal video game advertising in the UK and South Korea: Many adverts not disclosing loot box presence found using Meta’s ad repository," OSF Preprints jqng5_v1, Center for Open Science.
    13. Mattinen, Topias & Macey, Joseph & Hamari, Juho, 2023. "A Ruse by Any Other Name: Comparing Loot Boxes and Collectible Card Games Using Magic Arena," OSF Preprints s9xqt, Center for Open Science.
    14. Sreedhar Madhavaram & Radha Appan, 2024. "AI for marketing: Enabler? Engager? Ersatz?," AMS Review, Springer;Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 14(3), pages 258-277, December.
    15. Hajiheydari, Nastaran & Delgosha, Mohammad Soltani & Saheb, Tahereh, 2025. "AI in medical diagnosis: A contextualised study of patient motivations and concerns," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 371(C).
    16. Trautwein, Yannik & Zechiel, Felix & Coussement, Kristof & Meire, Matthijs & Büttgen, Marion, 2025. "Opening the ‘black box’ of HRM algorithmic biases – How hiring practices induce discrimination on freelancing platforms," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
    17. Chagas, B.T. & Jesus, D. & Palma-dos-Reis, A., 2024. "Blockchain's value proposition for online gambling: The operators' perspective," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 200(C).
    18. Hao, Xinyue & Demir, Emrah & Eyers, Daniel, 2024. "Exploring collaborative decision-making: A quasi-experimental study of human and Generative AI interaction," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    19. Chen, Qian & Jing, Yufan & Gong, Yeming & Tan, Jie, 2025. "Will users fall in love with ChatGPT? a perspective from the triangular theory of love," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 186(C).
    20. Mallory Avery & Andreas Leibbrandt & Joseph Vecci, 2023. "Does Artificial Intelligence Help or Hurt Gender Diversity? Evidence from Two Field Experiments on Recruitment in Tech," Monash Economics Working Papers 2023-09, Monash University, Department of Economics.
    21. Jean-Michel Costes & Céline Bonnaire, 2022. "Spending Money in Free-to-Play Games: Sociodemographic Characteristics, Motives, Impulsivity and Internet Gaming Disorder Specificities," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(23), pages 1-14, November.
    22. Kekez, Ivan & Lauwaert, Lode & Begičević Ređep, Nina, 2025. "Is artificial intelligence (AI) research biased and conceptually vague? A systematic review of research on bias and discrimination in the context of using AI in human resource management," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 81(C).

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:osf:osfxxx:jc6ks_v2. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: OSF (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://osf.io/preprints/ .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.