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Invisible Labor, Visible Barriers: The Socioeconomic Realities of Women's Work in Pakistan

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  • Sana Khalil
  • Angela Warner

Abstract

We highlight the barriers shaping women's economic opportunities in Pakistan, where female labor force participation remains among the lowest globally. Labor force surveys (2020-21) show a stark rural-urban divide: 28 percent for rural women versus 69 percent for rural men, and 10 percent for urban women versus 66 percent for urban men. Unemployment is higher for women (7 percent in rural areas; 16 percent in urban areas) than for men (5 and 6 percent, respectively). Women are concentrated in agriculture (68 percent), with limited presence in services (17 percent) and industry (15 percent), and mostly in rural (51 percent) or home-based (30 percent) work; only 14 percent are in formal business settings. Employment status reflects vulnerability: 63 percent of rural women are unpaid contributing family workers versus 17 percent of urban women. Interviews with married women in Karachi underscore childcare constraints, harassment and safety concerns, transport barriers, and family opposition. Together, the evidence points to structural and cultural constraints that restrict access to paid work; easing them will require labor market reforms, better transport and childcare, stronger protections against harassment and discrimination, and a gradual change in gender norms and household decision-making.

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  • Sana Khalil & Angela Warner, 2025. "Invisible Labor, Visible Barriers: The Socioeconomic Realities of Women's Work in Pakistan," Papers 2508.16664, arXiv.org, revised Sep 2025.
    • Handle: RePEc:arx:papers:2508.16664
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    References listed on IDEAS

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