IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jlands/v14y2025i5p929-d1641829.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Exploring the Spatiotemporal Driving Forces of Vegetation Cover Variations on the Loess Plateau: A Comprehensive Assessment of Climate Change and Human Activity

Author

Listed:
  • Xin Jia

    (School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China)

  • Haiyan Liu

    (School of Economics and Management, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China)

  • Xiaoyuan Zhang

    (School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China)

  • Lijiang Liang

    (School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China)

  • Dongya Liu

    (School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China)

  • Xinqi Zheng

    (School of Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
    Observation and Research Station of Beijing Fangshan Comprehensive Exploration, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100083, China
    Technology Innovation Center for Territory Spatial Big-Data, Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s Republic of China, Beijing 100036, China)

Abstract

Vegetation dynamics and their underlying driving mechanisms have emerged as a prominent research focus in ecological studies of the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP). Current investigations, however, employ simplified methodologies in analyzing the influencing factors, limiting their capacity to comprehensively elucidate the intricate and multidimensional mechanisms that govern vegetation transformations. Utilizing fractional vegetation cover (FVC) datasets spanning 2000 to 2021, this research applies both XGBoost-SHAP and Geodetector approaches for comparative analysis of the driving factors and precise quantification of climatic change (CC) and human activity (HA). The results indicate that: (1) The CLP has experienced an annual FVC increase of 0.62%, with 95.1% of the region demonstrating statistically significant vegetation improvement. (2) Precipitation and land use emerge as the primary determinants of FVC spatial distribution, with their interactive effects substantially exceeding the impacts of individual factors. (3) While both XGBoost-SHAP and Geodetector methodologies consistently identify the primary driving factors, notable discrepancies exist in their assessment of temperature’s relative importance, revealing complementary dimensions of ecological complexity captured by different analytical paradigms. (4) Approximately 94.3% of FVC variations are jointly influenced by HA and CC, with anthropogenic factors predominating at a contribution of 67%. Land use modifications, particularly transitions among cropland, grassland, and forests, constitute the principal mechanism of human influence on vegetation patterns. This investigation enhances the understanding of vegetation responses under combined natural and anthropogenic pressures, offering valuable insights for ecological rehabilitation and sustainable development strategies on the CLP.

Suggested Citation

  • Xin Jia & Haiyan Liu & Xiaoyuan Zhang & Lijiang Liang & Dongya Liu & Xinqi Zheng, 2025. "Exploring the Spatiotemporal Driving Forces of Vegetation Cover Variations on the Loess Plateau: A Comprehensive Assessment of Climate Change and Human Activity," Land, MDPI, vol. 14(5), pages 1-21, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jlands:v:14:y:2025:i:5:p:929-:d:1641829
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/14/5/929/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/14/5/929/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Xiaoming Feng & Bojie Fu & Shilong Piao & Shuai Wang & Philippe Ciais & Zhenzhong Zeng & Yihe Lü & Yuan Zeng & Yue Li & Xiaohui Jiang & Bingfang Wu, 2016. "Revegetation in China’s Loess Plateau is approaching sustainable water resource limits," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 6(11), pages 1019-1022, November.
    2. Alfred L. Roca & Gila Kahila Bar-Gal & Eduardo Eizirik & Kristofer M. Helgen & Roberto Maria & Mark S. Springer & Stephen J. O'Brien & William J. Murphy, 2004. "Mesozoic origin for West Indian insectivores," Nature, Nature, vol. 429(6992), pages 649-651, June.
    3. Xiaowei Tong & Martin Brandt & Yuemin Yue & Stephanie Horion & Kelin Wang & Wanda De Keersmaecker & Feng Tian & Guy Schurgers & Xiangming Xiao & Yiqi Luo & Chi Chen & Ranga Myneni & Zheng Shi & Hongso, 2018. "Increased vegetation growth and carbon stock in China karst via ecological engineering," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 1(1), pages 44-50, January.
    4. Xiaoping Liu & Fengsong Pei & Youyue Wen & Xia Li & Shaojian Wang & Changjiang Wu & Yiling Cai & Jianguo Wu & Jun Chen & Kuishuang Feng & Junguo Liu & Klaus Hubacek & Steven J. Davis & Wenping Yuan & , 2019. "Global urban expansion offsets climate-driven increases in terrestrial net primary productivity," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 10(1), pages 1-8, December.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Linghua Qiu & Junhao He & Chao Yue & Philippe Ciais & Chunmiao Zheng, 2024. "Substantial terrestrial carbon emissions from global expansion of impervious surface area," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-13, December.
    2. Ma, Shuai & Wang, Liang-Jie & Chu, Lei & Jiang, Jiang, 2023. "Determination of ecological restoration patterns based on water security and food security in arid regions," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 278(C).
    3. Jiayi Zhou & Kangning Xiong & Qi Wang & Jiuhan Tang & Li Lin, 2022. "A Review of Ecological Assets and Ecological Products Supply: Implications for the Karst Rocky Desertification Control," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(16), pages 1-20, August.
    4. Lili Xu & Zhenfa Tu & Yuke Zhou & Guangming Yu, 2018. "Profiling Human-Induced Vegetation Change in the Horqin Sandy Land of China Using Time Series Datasets," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(4), pages 1-18, April.
    5. Vera, Ivan & Wicke, Birka & Lamers, Patrick & Cowie, Annette & Repo, Anna & Heukels, Bas & Zumpf, Colleen & Styles, David & Parish, Esther & Cherubini, Francesco & Berndes, Göran & Jager, Henriette & , 2022. "Land use for bioenergy: Synergies and trade-offs between sustainable development goals," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 161(C).
    6. Ying Pan & Ke Shi & Zhongxu Zhao & Yao Li & Junxi Wu, 2024. "The effects of China’s poverty eradication program on sustainability and inequality," Palgrave Communications, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 11(1), pages 1-15, December.
    7. Liang-Jie Wang & Shuai Ma & Yong-Peng Qiao & Jin-Chi Zhang, 2020. "Simulating the Impact of Future Climate Change and Ecological Restoration on Trade-Offs and Synergies of Ecosystem Services in Two Ecological Shelters and Three Belts in China," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(21), pages 1-26, October.
    8. Li, Sijia & Wang, Jinman & Zhang, Min & Tang, Qian, 2021. "Characterizing and attributing the vegetation coverage changes in North Shanxi coal base of China from 1987 to 2020," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    9. Yongwei Zhu & Shanhu Jiang & Liliang Ren & Denghua Yan & Hao Cui & Menghao Wang & Chong-Yu Xu, 2024. "A Systematic Feedback Assessment Framework to Identify the Impact of Climate Change and Ecological Restoration on Water Yield Patterns," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 38(9), pages 3179-3195, July.
    10. Shiwen Zhang & Yan Wang & Chengrong Li & Yang Wu & Yuhang Yin & Chao Zhang, 2023. "The Response of Rocky Desertification to the Development of Road Networks in Karst Ecologically Fragile Areas," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 20(4), pages 1-20, February.
    11. Lu, Chengpeng & Ji, Wei & Hou, Muchen & Ma, Tianyang & Mao, Jinhuang, 2022. "Evaluation of efficiency and resilience of agricultural water resources system in the Yellow River Basin, China," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 266(C).
    12. Guga, Suri & Ma, Yining & Riao, Dao & Zhi, Feng & Xu, Jie & Zhang, Jiquan, 2023. "Drought monitoring of sugarcane and dynamic variation characteristics under global warming: A case study of Guangxi, China," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 275(C).
    13. Li Wang & Jie Pei & Jing Geng & Zheng Niu, 2019. "Tracking the Spatial–Temporal Evolution of Carbon Emissions in China from 1999 to 2015: A Land Use Perspective," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(17), pages 1-27, August.
    14. Tao, Ze & Wang, Xia & Siddique, Kadambot H.M., 2023. "Evaluating the bias effects of rooting depth and cryogenic vacuum extraction to quantify root water uptake patterns in deep-rooted apple trees," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 289(C).
    15. M. K. Dhillon & P. M. Rafi-Ul-Shan & H. Amar & F. Sher & S. Ahmed, 2023. "Flexible Green Supply Chain Management in Emerging Economies: A Systematic Literature Review," Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management, Springer;Global Institute of Flexible Systems Management, vol. 24(1), pages 1-28, March.
    16. Yang, Yuanyuan & Yang, Mingying & Zhao, Boxuan & Lu, Ziwen & Sun, Xiao & Zhang, Zhengfeng, 2025. "Spatially explicit carbon emissions from land use change: Dynamics and scenario simulation in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 150(C).
    17. Li, Han & Si, Bing Cheng & Zhang, Zhiqiang & Miao, Changhong, 2022. "Deep soil water storage and drainage following conversion of deep rooted to shallow rooted vegetation," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 261(C).
    18. Saowanee Wijitkosum, 2020. "Reducing Vulnerability to Desertification by Using the Spatial Measures in a Degraded Area in Thailand," Land, MDPI, vol. 9(2), pages 1-20, February.
    19. Sibo Zeng & Zaihua Liu & Yongjun Jiang & Nico Goldscheider & Yan Yang & Min Zhao & Hailong Sun & Haibo He & Mingyu Shao & Liangxing Shi, 2025. "A greening Earth has reversed the trend of decreasing carbonate weathering under a warming climate," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 16(1), pages 1-13, December.
    20. Yang, Shanshan & Zhang, Jiahua & Wang, Jingwen & Zhang, Sha & Bai, Yun & Shi, Siqi & Cao, Dan, 2022. "Spatiotemporal variations of water productivity for cropland and driving factors over China during 2001–2015," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jlands:v:14:y:2025:i:5:p:929-:d:1641829. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.