IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v18y2021i24p13099-d700500.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Adequacy of Existing Surveillance Systems to Monitor Racism, Social Stigma and COVID Inequities: A Detailed Assessment and Recommendations

Author

Listed:
  • Chandra L. Ford

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Bita Amani

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Department of Urban Public Health, College of Science & Health, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine & Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA)

  • Nina T. Harawa

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Department of Urban Public Health, College of Science & Health, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine & Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA
    Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine and Health Services Research, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Randall Akee

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
    Department of Public Policy, Luskin School of Public Affairs, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Gilbert C. Gee

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Majid Sarrafzadeh

    (Department of Computer Science, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Consuela Abotsi-Kowu

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Shayan Fazeli

    (Department of Computer Science, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Cindy Le

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Ezinne Nwankwo

    (Center for the Study of Racism, Social Justice & Health, Department of Community Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Davina Zamanzadeh

    (Department of Computer Science, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Anaelia Ovalle

    (Department of Computer Science, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA)

  • Monica L. Ponder

    (Department of Communication, Culture & Media Studies, Cathy Hughes School of Communication, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA)

Abstract

The populations impacted most by COVID are also impacted by racism and related social stigma; however, traditional surveillance tools may not capture the intersectionality of these relationships. We conducted a detailed assessment of diverse surveillance systems and databases to identify characteristics, constraints and best practices that might inform the development of a novel COVID surveillance system that achieves these aims. We used subject area expertise, an expert panel and CDC guidance to generate an initial list of N > 50 existing surveillance systems as of 29 October 2020, and systematically excluded those not advancing the project aims. This yielded a final reduced group ( n = 10) of COVID surveillance systems ( n = 3), other public health systems (4) and systems tracking racism and/or social stigma ( n = 3, which we evaluated by using CDC evaluation criteria and Critical Race Theory. Overall, the most important contribution of COVID-19 surveillance systems is their real-time (e.g., daily) or near-real-time (e.g., weekly) reporting; however, they are severely constrained by the lack of complete data on race/ethnicity, making it difficult to monitor racial/ethnic inequities. Other public health systems have validated measures of psychosocial and behavioral factors and some racism or stigma-related factors but lack the timeliness needed in a pandemic. Systems that monitor racism report historical data on, for instance, hate crimes, but do not capture current patterns, and it is unclear how representativeness the findings are. Though existing surveillance systems offer important strengths for monitoring health conditions or racism and related stigma, new surveillance strategies are needed to monitor their intersecting relationships more rigorously.

Suggested Citation

  • Chandra L. Ford & Bita Amani & Nina T. Harawa & Randall Akee & Gilbert C. Gee & Majid Sarrafzadeh & Consuela Abotsi-Kowu & Shayan Fazeli & Cindy Le & Ezinne Nwankwo & Davina Zamanzadeh & Anaelia Ovall, 2021. "Adequacy of Existing Surveillance Systems to Monitor Racism, Social Stigma and COVID Inequities: A Detailed Assessment and Recommendations," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(24), pages 1-18, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:24:p:13099-:d:700500
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/24/13099/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/18/24/13099/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Ford, C.L. & Airhihenbuwa, C.O., 2010. "Critical race theory, race equity, and public health: Toward antiracism praxis," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 100(S1), pages 30-35.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Layland, Eric K. & Maggs, Jennifer L. & Kipke, Michele D. & Bray, Bethany C., 2022. "Intersecting racism and homonegativism among sexual minority men of color: Latent class analysis of multidimensional stigma with subgroup differences in health and sociostructural burdens," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 293(C).
    2. Kathomi Gatwiri & Darlene Rotumah & Elizabeth Rix, 2021. "BlackLivesMatter in Healthcare: Racism and Implications for Health Inequity among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(9), pages 1-11, April.
    3. Ford, Chandra L. & Airhihenbuwa, Collins O., 2010. "The public health critical race methodology: Praxis for antiracism research," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 71(8), pages 1390-1398, October.
    4. Lynn N. Ibekwe & Maria Eugenia Fernández-Esquer & Sandi L. Pruitt & Nalini Ranjit & Maria E. Fernández, 2021. "Racism and Cancer Screening among Low-Income, African American Women: A Multilevel, Longitudinal Analysis of 2-1-1 Texas Callers," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(21), pages 1-19, October.
    5. Slaughter-Acey, Jaime C. & Brown, Tony N. & Keith, Verna M. & Dailey, Rhonda & Misra, Dawn P., 2020. "A tale of two generations: Maternal skin color and adverse birth outcomes in Black/African American women," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 265(C).
    6. Came, Heather, 2014. "Sites of institutional racism in public health policy making in New Zealand," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 106(C), pages 214-220.
    7. Belak, Andrej & Filakovska Bobakova, Daniela & Madarasova Geckova, Andrea & van Dijk, Jitse P. & Reijneveld, Sijmen A., 2020. "Why don't health care frontline professionals do more for segregated Roma? Exploring mechanisms supporting unequal care practices," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 246(C).
    8. Scott, Darius, 2022. "Uncaring landscapes and HIV peer support in the rural Southern United States," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 292(C).
    9. Gomez-Vidal, Cristina & Gomez, Anu Manchikanti, 2021. "Invisible and unequal: Unincorporated community status as a structural determinant of health," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 285(C).
    10. Hicken, Margaret T. & Kravitz-Wirtz, Nicole & Durkee, Myles & Jackson, James S., 2018. "Racial inequalities in health: Framing future research," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 199(C), pages 11-18.
    11. Akinade, Temitope & Kheyfets, Anna & Piverger, Naissa & Layne, Tracy M. & Howell, Elizabeth A. & Janevic, Teresa, 2023. "The influence of racial-ethnic discrimination on women's health care outcomes: A mixed methods systematic review," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 316(C).
    12. Smith-Morris, Carolyn, 2017. "Epidemiological placism in public health emergencies: Ebola in two Dallas neighborhoods," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 106-114.
    13. Ariella Levisohn & Laurie Nsiah-Jefferson & Colette Dieujuste & Lisa Heelan-Fancher, 2024. "Promoting Maternal Health in the Postpartum Period to Advance Birth Equity," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 21(12), pages 1-15, December.
    14. Roland J. Thorpe & Marino A. Bruce & Tanganyika Wilder & Harlan P. Jones & Courtney Thomas Tobin & Keith C. Norris, 2025. "Health Disparities at the Intersection of Racism, Social Determinants of Health, and Downstream Biological Pathways," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 22(5), pages 1-11, April.
    15. Pam Phojanakong & Emily Brown Weida & Gabriella Grimaldi & Félice Lê-Scherban & Mariana Chilton, 2019. "Experiences of Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Are Associated with Food Insecurity and Poor Health," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 16(22), pages 1-13, November.
    16. Drona P. Rasali & Brendan M. Woodruff & Fatima A. Alzyoud & Daniel Kiel & Katharine T. Schaffzin & William D. Osei & Chandra L. Ford & Shanthi Johnson, 2024. "Cross-Disciplinary Rapid Scoping Review of Structural Racial and Caste Discrimination Associated with Population Health Disparities in the 21st Century," Societies, MDPI, vol. 14(9), pages 1-24, September.
    17. Paris Ekeke & Dara D. Mendez & Toby D. Yanowitz & Janet M. Catov, 2020. "Racial Differences in the Biochemical Effects of Stress in Pregnancy," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(19), pages 1-15, September.
    18. Ackermann, Nicole & Goodman, Melody S. & Gilbert, Keon & Arroyo-Johnson, Cassandra & Pagano, Marcello, 2015. "Race, law, and health: Examination of ‘Stand Your Ground’ and defendant convictions in Florida," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 142(C), pages 194-201.
    19. Mary E. Sterrett & Michael S. Bloom & Erica L. Jamro & Abby G. Wenzel & Rebecca J. Wineland & Elizabeth R. Unal & John Brock & John Kucklick & Kelly Garcia & Roger B. Newman, 2021. "Maternal Food and Beverage Consumption Behaviors and Discrepant Phthalate Exposure by Race," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(4), pages 1-15, February.
    20. Paula M Kett & Shahida Shahrir & Betty Bekemeier & Kay Schaffer & Danielle J Zemmel & Davis G Patterson, 2025. "Individual and organizational factors associated with public health workforce competencies to advance health equity," PLOS Global Public Health, Public Library of Science, vol. 5(1), pages 1-19, January.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:24:p:13099-:d:700500. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.