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Barriers to Balcony Solar and Plug-In Distributed Energy Resources in the United States

Author

Listed:
  • Daniel L. Gerber

    (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Building Technologies Urban Systems Department, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA)

  • Achim Ginsberg-Klemmt

    (GismoPower LLC, Sarasota, FL 34239, USA)

  • Lyn Stoler

    (Impulse Labs, San Francisco, CA 94103, USA)

  • Jordan Shackelford

    (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Building Technologies Urban Systems Department, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA)

  • Alan Meier

    (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Building Technologies Urban Systems Department, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA)

Abstract

Plug-in distributed energy resources (DERs), such as balcony solar, backfeed power to the home through a standard plug. These systems may represent the future of residential solar and storage, particularly as recent net metering policies have reduced the economic appeal of rooftop solar. While plug-in DERs have seen widespread success in Europe, their U.S. market is stagnant. This paper reviews the technical, interconnection, and regulatory barriers hindering the adoption of plug-in DERs. We first discuss the technical barriers, which include touch safety, breaker masking, and bidirectional ground-fault circuit interrupters. We then examine utility perspectives on plug-in DERs and strategies for navigating interconnection challenges. Finally, we discuss regulatory hurdles related to UL standards and the National Electrical Code.

Suggested Citation

  • Daniel L. Gerber & Achim Ginsberg-Klemmt & Lyn Stoler & Jordan Shackelford & Alan Meier, 2025. "Barriers to Balcony Solar and Plug-In Distributed Energy Resources in the United States," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-18, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:8:p:2132-:d:1638959
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Hammerle, Mara & White, Lee V. & Sturmberg, Bjorn, 2023. "Solar for renters: Investigating investor perspectives of barriers and policies," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 174(C).
    2. Mundada, Aishwarya S. & Prehoda, Emily W. & Pearce, Joshua M., 2017. "U.S. market for solar photovoltaic plug-and-play systems," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 103(C), pages 255-264.
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