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Gender norms and child penalties

Author

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  • Rafols, Radine

Abstract

I study how early gender beliefs shape the labor market consequences of parenthood. Drawing on panel data from the NLSY79, I document sharp and persistent gender gaps in wages, hours, employment, and earnings following childbirth. Mothers with egalitarian norms exhibit stronger labor force attachment and suffer smaller penalties across all outcomes. To understand mechanisms, I demonstrate that gender norms affect decisions that typically correlate with labor market success. A causal mediation analysis reveals that the indirect effect of norm beliefs on fertility explain a sizable share of the gap between modern and traditional mothers, while education, marriage timing, and occupational sorting play more limited roles.

Suggested Citation

  • Rafols, Radine, 2025. "Gender norms and child penalties," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 97(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:labeco:v:97:y:2025:i:c:s0927537125000946
    DOI: 10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102770
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    Cited by:

    1. Del Boca, Daniela & Favero, Luca & Pronzato, Chiara, 2026. "Supporting Mothers Back to Work: Experimental Evidence on Employment, Fertility, and Child Outcomes," IZA Discussion Papers 18630, IZA Network @ LISER.
    2. Biasi, Paola & De Paola, Maria, 2026. "How Institutions and Local Contexts Shape the Child Penalty: Evidence from Italy's Public and Private Sectors," IZA Discussion Papers 18448, IZA Network @ LISER.

    More about this item

    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J31 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs - - - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
    • J24 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity

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