Are some minerals more governable? Copper mining materialities and formalization of artisanal and small-scale mining in Peru

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) is one of the main non-agricultural activities in the developing world, despite its often informal or illegal status. The formalization of ASM has been central in efforts to address the sector's challenges and enhance its potential for rural livelihoods. However, in Latin America, much of the academic and policy focus on ASM has been on gold mining, with standardized approaches to resource governance that overlook the sector's diversity. Such perspectives fail to address the distinct possibilities and constraints of formalization, which often vary depending on the mineral type and geological conditions. Based on extensive ethnographic and qualitative research in northern Peru, this article examines how the materiality of copper-rich mineral extraction has facilitated artisanal miners' progress in the formalization process. Without falling into geological reductionism, we argue that the material and geological properties of copper-rich deposits in some ASM mine sites can catalyze socio-political arrangements and technical transitions aligned with the goals of Peru's formalization policy. In line with this argument, we first show how copper's geological characteristics discourage the use of cyanide and mercury, thereby promoting more environmentally acceptable mining practices. Secondly, we explore how the necessity for deep mining in copper extraction encourages capitalization, technological innovation, and professionalization of mining activities. Finally, we discuss how security and logistical challenges involved in the transportation of large volumes of copper-rich raw minerals incentivize formalization. By focusing on non-gold ASM, this research contributes to a growing body of literature on the factors that influence formalization efforts, underscoring the pivotal role of resource materiality.