IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/insuma/v99y2021icp152-162.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Assessing mortality inequality in the U.S.: What can be said about the future?

Author

Listed:
  • Li, Han
  • Hyndman, Rob J.

Abstract

This paper investigates mortality inequality across U.S. states by modeling and forecasting mortality rates via a forecast reconciliation approach. Understanding the heterogeneity in state-level mortality experience is of fundamental importance, as it can assist decision making for policymakers, health authorities, as well as local communities who are seeking to reduce inequalities and disparities in life expectancy. A key challenge of multi-population mortality modeling is high dimensionality, and the resulting complex dependence structures across sub-populations. Moreover, when projecting future mortality rates, it is important to ensure that the state-level forecasts are coherent with the national-level forecasts. We address these issues by first obtaining independent state-level forecasts based on classical stochastic mortality models, and then incorporating the dependence structure in the forecast reconciliation process. Both traditional bottom-up reconciliation and the cutting-edge trace minimization reconciliation methods are considered. Based on the U.S. total mortality data for the period 1969–2017, we project the 10-year-ahead mortality rates at both national-level and state-level up to 2027. We find that the geographical inequality in the longevity levels is likely to continue in the future, and the mortality improvement rates will tend to slow down in the coming decades.

Suggested Citation

  • Li, Han & Hyndman, Rob J., 2021. "Assessing mortality inequality in the U.S.: What can be said about the future?," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(C), pages 152-162.
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:insuma:v:99:y:2021:i:c:p:152-162
    DOI: 10.1016/j.insmatheco.2021.03.014
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167668721000482
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.insmatheco.2021.03.014?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Yuan Gao & Han Lin Shang, 2017. "Multivariate Functional Time Series Forecasting: Application to Age-Specific Mortality Rates," Risks, MDPI, vol. 5(2), pages 1-18, March.
    2. Hyndman, Rob J. & Ahmed, Roman A. & Athanasopoulos, George & Shang, Han Lin, 2011. "Optimal combination forecasts for hierarchical time series," Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 55(9), pages 2579-2589, September.
    3. Ronald Lee & Timothy Miller, 2001. "Evaluating the performance of the lee-carter method for forecasting mortality," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 38(4), pages 537-549, November.
    4. O’Hare, Colin & Li, Youwei, 2012. "Explaining young mortality," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 12-25.
    5. Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Athanasopoulos, George & Gamakumara, Puwasala & Hyndman, Rob J., 2021. "Forecast reconciliation: A geometric view with new insights on bias correction," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 37(1), pages 343-359.
    6. Zellner, Arnold & Tobias, Justin, 1998. "A Note on Aggregation, Disaggregation and Forecasting Performance," CUDARE Working Papers 198677, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics.
    7. Capistrán, Carlos & Constandse, Christian & Ramos-Francia, Manuel, 2010. "Multi-horizon inflation forecasts using disaggregated data," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 27(3), pages 666-677, May.
    8. Jeon, Jooyoung & Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Petropoulos, Fotios, 2019. "Probabilistic forecast reconciliation with applications to wind power and electric load," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 279(2), pages 364-379.
    9. Dangerfield, Byron J. & Morris, John S., 1992. "Top-down or bottom-up: Aggregate versus disaggregate extrapolations," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 8(2), pages 233-241, October.
    10. Li, Han & O’Hare, Colin & Zhang, Xibin, 2015. "A semiparametric panel approach to mortality modeling," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 264-270.
    11. Shanika L. Wickramasuriya & George Athanasopoulos & Rob J. Hyndman, 2019. "Optimal Forecast Reconciliation for Hierarchical and Grouped Time Series Through Trace Minimization," Journal of the American Statistical Association, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 114(526), pages 804-819, April.
    12. Andrew J. G. Cairns & David Blake & Kevin Dowd, 2006. "A Two‐Factor Model for Stochastic Mortality with Parameter Uncertainty: Theory and Calibration," Journal of Risk & Insurance, The American Risk and Insurance Association, vol. 73(4), pages 687-718, December.
    13. Shang, Han Lin & Haberman, Steven, 2017. "Grouped multivariate and functional time series forecasting:An application to annuity pricing," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 166-179.
    14. Fildes, Robert & Ma, Shaohui & Kolassa, Stephan, 2019. "Retail forecasting: research and practice," MPRA Paper 89356, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    15. Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Gamakumara, Puwasala & Athanasopoulos, George & Hyndman, Rob J., 2023. "Probabilistic forecast reconciliation: Properties, evaluation and score optimisation," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 306(2), pages 693-706.
    16. Athanasopoulos, George & Ahmed, Roman A. & Hyndman, Rob J., 2009. "Hierarchical forecasts for Australian domestic tourism," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 25(1), pages 146-166.
    17. Li, Han & Tang, Qihe, 2019. "Analyzing Mortality Bond Indexes Via Hierarchical Forecast Reconciliation," ASTIN Bulletin, Cambridge University Press, vol. 49(3), pages 823-846, September.
    18. Hyndman, Rob J. & Shahid Ullah, Md., 2007. "Robust forecasting of mortality and fertility rates: A functional data approach," Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 51(10), pages 4942-4956, June.
    19. Li, Han & Li, Hong & Lu, Yang & Panagiotelis, Anastasios, 2019. "A forecast reconciliation approach to cause-of-death mortality modeling," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 122-133.
    20. Babai, Zied & Boylan, John E. & Kolassa, Stephan & Nikolopoulos, Konstantinos, 2016. "Supply chain forecasting: Theory, practice, their gap and the futureAuthor-Name: Syntetos, Aris A," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 252(1), pages 1-26.
    21. Carter, Lawrence R. & Lee, Ronald D., 1992. "Modeling and forecasting US sex differentials in mortality," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 8(3), pages 393-411, November.
    22. Souhaib Ben Taieb & James W. Taylor & Rob J. Hyndman, 2017. "Coherent Probabilistic Forecasts for Hierarchical Time Series," Monash Econometrics and Business Statistics Working Papers 3/17, Monash University, Department of Econometrics and Business Statistics.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Jan L. M. Dhaene & Moshe A. Milevsky, 2024. "Egalitarian pooling and sharing of longevity risk', a.k.a. 'The many ways to skin a tontine cat," Papers 2402.00855, arXiv.org.
    2. Tom Wilson & Irina Grossman & Monica Alexander & Phil Rees & Jeromey Temple, 2022. "Methods for Small Area Population Forecasts: State-of-the-Art and Research Needs," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 41(3), pages 865-898, June.
    3. Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Gamakumara, Puwasala & Athanasopoulos, George & Hyndman, Rob J., 2023. "Probabilistic forecast reconciliation: Properties, evaluation and score optimisation," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 306(2), pages 693-706.
    4. George Athanasopoulos & Rob J Hyndman & Nikolaos Kourentzes & Anastasios Panagiotelis, 2023. "Forecast Reconciliation: A Review," Monash Econometrics and Business Statistics Working Papers 8/23, Monash University, Department of Econometrics and Business Statistics.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. George Athanasopoulos & Rob J Hyndman & Nikolaos Kourentzes & Anastasios Panagiotelis, 2023. "Forecast Reconciliation: A Review," Monash Econometrics and Business Statistics Working Papers 8/23, Monash University, Department of Econometrics and Business Statistics.
    2. Petropoulos, Fotios & Apiletti, Daniele & Assimakopoulos, Vassilios & Babai, Mohamed Zied & Barrow, Devon K. & Ben Taieb, Souhaib & Bergmeir, Christoph & Bessa, Ricardo J. & Bijak, Jakub & Boylan, Joh, 2022. "Forecasting: theory and practice," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 38(3), pages 705-871.
      • Fotios Petropoulos & Daniele Apiletti & Vassilios Assimakopoulos & Mohamed Zied Babai & Devon K. Barrow & Souhaib Ben Taieb & Christoph Bergmeir & Ricardo J. Bessa & Jakub Bijak & John E. Boylan & Jet, 2020. "Forecasting: theory and practice," Papers 2012.03854, arXiv.org, revised Jan 2022.
    3. Li, Han & Li, Hong & Lu, Yang & Panagiotelis, Anastasios, 2019. "A forecast reconciliation approach to cause-of-death mortality modeling," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 122-133.
    4. Hollyman, Ross & Petropoulos, Fotios & Tipping, Michael E., 2021. "Understanding forecast reconciliation," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 294(1), pages 149-160.
    5. Blake, David & Cairns, Andrew J.G., 2021. "Longevity risk and capital markets: The 2019-20 update," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(C), pages 395-439.
    6. Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Gamakumara, Puwasala & Athanasopoulos, George & Hyndman, Rob J., 2023. "Probabilistic forecast reconciliation: Properties, evaluation and score optimisation," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 306(2), pages 693-706.
    7. Han Lin Shang & Yang Yang, 2021. "Forecasting Australian subnational age-specific mortality rates," Journal of Population Research, Springer, vol. 38(1), pages 1-24, March.
    8. Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Athanasopoulos, George & Gamakumara, Puwasala & Hyndman, Rob J., 2021. "Forecast reconciliation: A geometric view with new insights on bias correction," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 37(1), pages 343-359.
    9. Pritularga, Kandrika F. & Svetunkov, Ivan & Kourentzes, Nikolaos, 2021. "Stochastic coherency in forecast reconciliation," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 240(C).
    10. Tomokaze Shiratori & Ken Kobayashi & Yuichi Takano, 2020. "Prediction of hierarchical time series using structured regularization and its application to artificial neural networks," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 15(11), pages 1-23, November.
    11. Norkhairunnisa Redzwan & Rozita Ramli, 2022. "A Bibliometric Analysis of Research on Stochastic Mortality Modelling and Forecasting," Risks, MDPI, vol. 10(10), pages 1-17, October.
    12. Di Fonzo, Tommaso & Girolimetto, Daniele, 2023. "Cross-temporal forecast reconciliation: Optimal combination method and heuristic alternatives," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 39(1), pages 39-57.
    13. Chen, Zhi & Gaba, Anil & Tsetlin, Ilia & Winkler, Robert L., 2022. "Evaluating quantile forecasts in the M5 uncertainty competition," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 38(4), pages 1531-1545.
    14. Lila, Maurício Franca & Meira, Erick & Cyrino Oliveira, Fernando Luiz, 2022. "Forecasting unemployment in Brazil: A robust reconciliation approach using hierarchical data," Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, Elsevier, vol. 82(PB).
    15. Li, Han & O’Hare, Colin, 2017. "Semi-parametric extensions of the Cairns–Blake–Dowd model: A one-dimensional kernel smoothing approach," Insurance: Mathematics and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 77(C), pages 166-176.
    16. Nystrup, Peter & Lindström, Erik & Møller, Jan K. & Madsen, Henrik, 2021. "Dimensionality reduction in forecasting with temporal hierarchies," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 37(3), pages 1127-1146.
    17. Kourentzes, Nikolaos & Athanasopoulos, George, 2021. "Elucidate structure in intermittent demand series," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 288(1), pages 141-152.
    18. Ka Kin Lam & Bo Wang, 2021. "Robust Non-Parametric Mortality and Fertility Modelling and Forecasting: Gaussian Process Regression Approaches," Forecasting, MDPI, vol. 3(1), pages 1-21, March.
    19. Rachel WINGENBACH & Jong-Min KIM & Hojin JUNG, 2020. "Living Longer in High Longevity Risk," JODE - Journal of Demographic Economics, Cambridge University Press, vol. 86(1), pages 47-86, March.
    20. Zhang, Bohan & Kang, Yanfei & Panagiotelis, Anastasios & Li, Feng, 2023. "Optimal reconciliation with immutable forecasts," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 308(2), pages 650-660.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:insuma:v:99:y:2021:i:c:p:152-162. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/inca/505554 .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.