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Domestic hot water storage: Balancing thermal and sanitary performance

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  • Armstrong, P.
  • Ager, D.
  • Thompson, I.
  • McCulloch, M.

Abstract

Thermal stratification within hot water tanks maximises the availability of stored energy and facilitates optimal use of both conventional and renewable energy sources. However, stratified tanks are also associated with the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, such as Legionella, due to the hospitable temperatures that arise during operation. Sanitary measures, aimed at homogenising the temperature distribution throughout the tank, have been proposed; such measures reduce the effective energy storage capability that is otherwise available. Here we quantify the conflict that arises between thermodynamic performance and bacterial sterilisation within 10 real world systems. Whilst perfect stratification enhances the recovery of hot water and reduces heat losses, water samples revealed significant bacterial growth attributable to stratification (P<0.01). Temperature measurements indicated that users were exposed to potentially unsanitary water as a result. De-stratifying a system to sterilise bacteria led to a 19% reduction in effective hot water storage capability. Increasing the tank size to compensate for this loss would lead to an 11% increase in energy consumed through standing heat losses. Policymakers, seeking to utilise hot water tanks as demand response assets, should consider monitoring and control systems that prevent exposures to unsanitary hot water.

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  • Armstrong, P. & Ager, D. & Thompson, I. & McCulloch, M., 2014. "Domestic hot water storage: Balancing thermal and sanitary performance," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 334-339.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:68:y:2014:i:c:p:334-339
    DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2014.01.012
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    2. Armstrong, Peter M. & Uapipatanakul, Meg & Thompson, Ian & Ager, Duane & McCulloch, Malcolm, 2014. "Thermal and sanitary performance of domestic hot water cylinders: Conflicting requirements," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 131(C), pages 171-179.
    3. Naghavi, M.S. & Ong, K.S. & Badruddin, I.A. & Mehrali, M. & Silakhori, M. & Metselaar, H.S.C., 2015. "Theoretical model of an evacuated tube heat pipe solar collector integrated with phase change material," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 91(C), pages 911-924.
    4. Mohammad Sajad Naghavi Sanjani & Mahyar Silakhori & Bee Chin Ang & Hendrik Simon Cornelis Metselaar & Sayed Mohammad Mousavi Gazafroudi & Younes Noorollahi, 2023. "Experimental Investigation on Solar Water Heater Integrated with Thermal Battery Using Phase Change Material and Porous Media," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-17, April.
    5. Armstrong, P. & Ager, D. & Thompson, I. & McCulloch, M., 2014. "Improving the energy storage capability of hot water tanks through wall material specification," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 128-140.
    6. Naghavi, M.S. & Metselaar, H.S.C. & Ang, B.C. & Zamiri, G. & Esmailzadeh, A. & Nasiri-Tabrizi, B., 2021. "A critical assessment on synergistic improvement in PCM based thermal batteries," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    7. Ximo Masip & Emilio Navarro-Peris & José M. Corberán, 2020. "Influence of the Thermal Energy Storage Strategy on the Performance of a Booster Heat Pump for Domestic Hot Water Production System Based on the Use of Low Temperature Heat Source," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(24), pages 1-24, December.

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