IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/appene/v384y2025ics0306261925001862.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Energy management of electric vehicles based on improved long short term memory network and data-enabled predictive control

Author

Listed:
  • Chen, Bin
  • He, Guo
  • Hu, Lin
  • Li, Heng
  • Wang, Miaoben
  • Zhang, Rui
  • Gao, Kai

Abstract

As a popular energy management strategy (EMS) in electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage systems (HESS), model predictive control (MPC) is vulnerable to model accuracy and parameter sensitivity effects with existing parametric modeling methods. This paper proposes a novel EMS based on hierarchical data-driven predictive control. The upper layer utilizes an optimized long short-term memory (LSTM) network for trajectory prediction, enabling the acquisition of cost-effective load power demands for the lower layer. In the lower layer, a data-enabled predictive control (DeePC) is proposed for the HESS to achieve optimal power distribution between the battery and supercapacitor while minimizing battery capacity loss. Unlike conventional MPC, DeePC is based on a non-parametric model built solely from input–output data of the HESS, enabling agile handling of diverse nonlinearities and uncertainties across different tasks and environments. Comparison with nonlinear model predictive control shows that DeePC reduces the total operating cost by 22.68%, with optimization results closer to offline dynamic programming results. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the proposed DeePC method is validated through hardware-in-the-loop (HIL).

Suggested Citation

  • Chen, Bin & He, Guo & Hu, Lin & Li, Heng & Wang, Miaoben & Zhang, Rui & Gao, Kai, 2025. "Energy management of electric vehicles based on improved long short term memory network and data-enabled predictive control," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 384(C).
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:384:y:2025:i:c:s0306261925001862
    DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125456
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261925001862
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125456?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Song, Ziyou & Li, Jianqiu & Hou, Jun & Hofmann, Heath & Ouyang, Minggao & Du, Jiuyu, 2018. "The battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system in electric vehicle applications: A case study," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 154(C), pages 433-441.
    2. Wang, Chun & Xiong, Rui & He, Hongwen & Ding, Xiaofeng & Shen, Weixiang, 2016. "Efficiency analysis of a bidirectional DC/DC converter in a hybrid energy storage system for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 183(C), pages 612-622.
    3. Song, Ziyou & Hofmann, Heath & Li, Jianqiu & Hou, Jun & Zhang, Xiaowu & Ouyang, Minggao, 2015. "The optimization of a hybrid energy storage system at subzero temperatures: Energy management strategy design and battery heating requirement analysis," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 159(C), pages 576-588.
    4. Olabi, Abdul Ghani & Abbas, Qaisar & Al Makky, Ahmed & Abdelkareem, Mohammad Ali, 2022. "Supercapacitors as next generation energy storage devices: Properties and applications," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 248(C).
    5. Gao, Kai & Luo, Pan & Xie, Jin & Chen, Bin & Wu, Yue & Du, Ronghua, 2023. "Energy management of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles based on speed prediction fused driving intention and LIDAR," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 284(C).
    6. Ma, Bin & Guo, Xing & Li, Penghui, 2023. "Adaptive energy management strategy based on a model predictive control with real-time tuning weight for hybrid energy storage system," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    7. Udeh, Godfrey T. & Michailos, Stavros & Ingham, Derek & Hughes, Kevin J. & Ma, Lin & Pourkashanian, Mohamed, 2022. "A modified rule-based energy management scheme for optimal operation of a hybrid PV-wind-Stirling engine integrated multi-carrier energy system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 312(C).
    8. Song, Ziyou & Hofmann, Heath & Li, Jianqiu & Han, Xuebing & Ouyang, Minggao, 2015. "Optimization for a hybrid energy storage system in electric vehicles using dynamic programing approach," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 151-162.
    9. Liu, Weirong & Yao, Pengfei & Wu, Yue & Duan, Lijun & Li, Heng & Peng, Jun, 2025. "Imitation reinforcement learning energy management for electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 378(PA).
    10. Changqing Du & Shiyang Huang & Yuyao Jiang & Dongmei Wu & Yang Li, 2022. "Optimization of Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Dynamic Programming," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(12), pages 1-25, June.
    11. Román-Ramírez, L.A. & Marco, J., 2022. "Design of experiments applied to lithium-ion batteries: A literature review," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 320(C).
    12. Xiang, Changle & Ding, Feng & Wang, Weida & He, Wei, 2017. "Energy management of a dual-mode power-split hybrid electric vehicle based on velocity prediction and nonlinear model predictive control," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 189(C), pages 640-653.
    13. Du, Wenyi & Ma, Juan & Yin, Wanjun, 2023. "Orderly charging strategy of electric vehicle based on improved PSO algorithm," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 271(C).
    14. Wu, Yue & Huang, Zhiwu & Hofmann, Heath & Liu, Yongjie & Huang, Jiahao & Hu, Xiaosong & Peng, Jun & Song, Ziyou, 2022. "Hierarchical predictive control for electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage system under vehicle-following scenarios," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C).
    15. Akhter, Muhammad Naveed & Mekhilef, Saad & Mokhlis, Hazlie & Ali, Raza & Usama, Muhammad & Muhammad, Munir Azam & Khairuddin, Anis Salwa Mohd, 2022. "A hybrid deep learning method for an hour ahead power output forecasting of three different photovoltaic systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 307(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Liu, Weirong & Yao, Pengfei & Wu, Yue & Duan, Lijun & Li, Heng & Peng, Jun, 2025. "Imitation reinforcement learning energy management for electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 378(PA).
    2. Chen, Bin & Wang, Miaoben & Hu, Lin & He, Guo & Yan, Haoyang & Wen, Xinji & Du, Ronghua, 2024. "Data-driven Koopman model predictive control for hybrid energy storage system of electric vehicles under vehicle-following scenarios," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 365(C).
    3. Zhu, Tao & Wills, Richard G.A. & Lot, Roberto & Ruan, Haijun & Jiang, Zhihao, 2021. "Adaptive energy management of a battery-supercapacitor energy storage system for electric vehicles based on flexible perception and neural network fitting," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 292(C).
    4. Wang, Chun & Yang, Ruixin & Yu, Quanqing, 2019. "Wavelet transform based energy management strategies for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles considering temperature uncertainty," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 256(C).
    5. Wu, Yue & Huang, Zhiwu & Li, Dongjun & Li, Heng & Peng, Jun & Stroe, Daniel & Song, Ziyou, 2024. "Optimal battery thermal management for electric vehicles with battery degradation minimization," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 353(PA).
    6. Wu, Yue & Huang, Zhiwu & Hofmann, Heath & Liu, Yongjie & Huang, Jiahao & Hu, Xiaosong & Peng, Jun & Song, Ziyou, 2022. "Hierarchical predictive control for electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage system under vehicle-following scenarios," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C).
    7. Song, Ziyou & Li, Jianqiu & Hou, Jun & Hofmann, Heath & Ouyang, Minggao & Du, Jiuyu, 2018. "The battery-supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system in electric vehicle applications: A case study," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 154(C), pages 433-441.
    8. Li, Guidan & Yang, Zhe & Li, Bin & Bi, Huakun, 2019. "Power allocation smoothing strategy for hybrid energy storage system based on Markov decision process," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 241(C), pages 152-163.
    9. Song, Ziyou & Feng, Shuo & Zhang, Lei & Hu, Zunyan & Hu, Xiaosong & Yao, Rui, 2019. "Economy analysis of second-life battery in wind power systems considering battery degradation in dynamic processes: Real case scenarios," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C), pages 1-1.
    10. Hou, Jun & Sun, Jing & Hofmann, Heath, 2018. "Control development and performance evaluation for battery/flywheel hybrid energy storage solutions to mitigate load fluctuations in all-electric ship propulsion systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 212(C), pages 919-930.
    11. Zhu, Tao & Lot, Roberto & Wills, Richard G.A. & Yan, Xingda, 2020. "Sizing a battery-supercapacitor energy storage system with battery degradation consideration for high-performance electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 208(C).
    12. Yang, Weiwei & Ruan, Jiageng & Yang, Jue & Zhang, Nong, 2020. "Investigation of integrated uninterrupted dual input transmission and hybrid energy storage system for electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).
    13. Wang, Jing & Kang, Lixia & Liu, Yongzhong, 2020. "Optimal scheduling for electric bus fleets based on dynamic programming approach by considering battery capacity fade," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 130(C).
    14. Liu, Xinzhi & Qi, Nanjian & Dai, Keren & Yin, Yajiang & Zhao, Jiahao & Wang, Xiaofeng & You, Zheng, 2022. "Sponge Supercapacitor rule-based energy management strategy for wireless sensor nodes optimized by using dynamic programing algorithm," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 239(PE).
    15. Chengning Zhang & Xin Jin & Junqiu Li, 2017. "PTC Self-Heating Experiments and Thermal Modeling of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack in Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(4), pages 1-21, April.
    16. Zhu, Tao & Wills, Richard G.A. & Lot, Roberto & Kong, Xiaodan & Yan, Xingda, 2021. "Optimal sizing and sensitivity analysis of a battery-supercapacitor energy storage system for electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 221(C).
    17. Han, Jie & Liu, Wenxue & Zheng, Yusheng & Khalatbarisoltani, Arash & Yang, Yalian & Hu, Xiaosong, 2023. "Health-conscious predictive energy management strategy with hybrid speed predictor for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: Investigating the impact of battery electro-thermal-aging models," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 352(C).
    18. Song, Ziyou & Hou, Jun & Li, Xuefeng & Wu, Xiaogang & Hu, Xiaosong & Hofmann, Heath & Sun, Jing, 2020. "The sequential algorithm for combined state of charge and state of health estimation of lithium-ion battery based on active current injection," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 193(C).
    19. Trovão, João P. & Silva, Mário A. & Antunes, Carlos Henggeler & Dubois, Maxime R., 2017. "Stability enhancement of the motor drive DC input voltage of an electric vehicle using on-board hybrid energy storage systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 205(C), pages 244-259.
    20. Liu, Hanwu & Lei, Yulong & Fu, Yao & Li, Xingzhong, 2022. "A novel hybrid-point-line energy management strategy based on multi-objective optimization for range-extended electric vehicle," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 247(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:appene:v:384:y:2025:i:c:s0306261925001862. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/405891/description#description .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.