IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/bjf/journl/v11y2026i3p520-543.html

Optimum Biodiesel Production from Palm Kernel Oil Using Heterogeneous Catalyst from Carbide Slag and Termite Hill Clay

Author

Listed:
  • Justina Oduwa Okhonmina

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Benin)

  • Kessington Obahiagbon

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Benin)

  • Eghe Amenze Oyedoh

    (Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Benin)

Abstract

This study is aimed at optimizing biodiesel production from palm kernel oil (PKO), using heterogeneous catalyst made from carbide slag and termite hill clay. The precursors (carbide slag and termite hill clay) were prepared and characterized. The composite catalyst was doped with Zn(NO3)2 by wet impregnation method. The PKO was characterized to obtain its different properties. Design of Experiments (DOE) was systematically used to study the effects of different variables on biodiesel yield and to ascertain the ideal conditions for optimum yield. The modelling was limited to RSM, using Box-Behnken design. The PKO’s acid value, saponification value, average molecular weight, density, viscosity, moisture content, iodine value and peroxide value were obtained as 7.34 mgKOH/g oil, 234.18 mgKOH/g oil, 741.93 g/mol, 0.901 g/cm3, 4.7 mPa.s, 1.09%, 18.7 mg I2/100g oil and 16.2 mEq/kg respectively. The XRF results showed that the carbide slag contained 89.763% CaO, 4.036 % SiO2, 3.880 % Al2O3, etc., while the THC contained 46.924% SiO2, 24.144% Al2O3, 20.619 % Fe2O3, etc. The composite contained the required oxides for carrying out esterification and transesterification process simultaneously. The yield was observed to be significantly impacted by all the factors. RSM numerical optimization gave an optimum yield of 98.22% at 66.95 oC, 94.04 minutes, 11.98:1 alcohol/oil ratio, and 2.39 wt% catalyst loading. There was an overall reduction of 28.4% in yield between the first and sixth reactions, for the catalyst reusability studies, which catalysed six different reactions. The produced biodiesel was characterized and the properties were found to be in agreement with the ASTM D6571 and EN 14214 standards.

Suggested Citation

  • Justina Oduwa Okhonmina & Kessington Obahiagbon & Eghe Amenze Oyedoh, 2026. "Optimum Biodiesel Production from Palm Kernel Oil Using Heterogeneous Catalyst from Carbide Slag and Termite Hill Clay," International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science, International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science (IJRIAS), vol. 11(3), pages 520-543, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:bjf:journl:v:11:y:2026:i:3:p:520-543
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijrias/uploads/vol11-iss3-pg520-543-202604_pdf.pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijrias/view/optimum-biodiesel-production-from-palm-kernel-oil-using-heterogeneous-catalyst-from-carbide-slag-and-termite-hill-clay/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Khoobbakht, Golmohammad & Kheiralipour, Kamran & Rasouli, Hamed & Rafiee, Mojtaba & Hadipour, Mehrdad & Karimi, Mahmoud, 2020. "Experimental exergy analysis of transesterification in biodiesel production," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).
    2. Zarina I Vakhitova & Clair L Alston-Knox, 2018. "Non-significant p-values? Strategies to understand and better determine the importance of effects and interactions in logistic regression," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(11), pages 1-32, November.
    3. Rezania, Shahabaldin & Korrani, Zahra Sotoudehnia & Gabris, Mohammad Ali & Cho, Jinwoo & Yadav, Krishna Kumar & Cabral-Pinto, Marina M.S. & Alam, Javed & Ahamed, Maqusood & Nodeh, Hamid Rashidi, 2021. "Lanthanum phosphate foam as novel heterogeneous nanocatalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 176(C), pages 228-236.
    4. Betiku, Eriola & Akintunde, Aramide Mistura & Ojumu, Tunde Victor, 2016. "Banana peels as a biobase catalyst for fatty acid methyl esters production using Napoleon's plume (Bauhinia monandra) seed oil: A process parameters optimization study," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 103(C), pages 797-806.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Daimary, Niran & Boruah, Pankaj & Eldiehy, Khalifa S.H. & Pegu, Tapan & Bardhan, Pritam & Bora, Utpal & Mandal, Manabendra & Deka, Dhanapati, 2022. "Musa acuminata peel: A bioresource for bio-oil and by-product utilization as a sustainable source of renewable green catalyst for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 187(C), pages 450-462.
    2. Olatundun, Esther Adedayo & Borokini, Omowumi Oluwatumininu & Betiku, Eriola, 2020. "Cocoa pod husk-plantain peel blend as a novel green heterogeneous catalyst for renewable and sustainable honne oil biodiesel synthesis: A case of biowastes-to-wealth," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 166(C), pages 163-175.
    3. Miladinović, Marija R. & Krstić, Jugoslav B. & Zdujić, Miodrag V. & Veselinović, Ljiljana M. & Veljović, Djordje N. & Banković-Ilić, Ivana B. & Stamenković, Olivera S. & Veljković, Vlada B., 2022. "Transesterification of used cooking sunflower oil catalyzed by hazelnut shell ash," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 183(C), pages 103-113.
    4. Nath, Biswajit & Basumatary, Bidangshri & Brahma, Sujata & Das, Bipul & Kalita, Pranjal & Rokhum, Samuel Lalthazuala & Basumatary, Sanjay, 2023. "Musa champa peduncle waste-derived efficient catalyst: Studies of biodiesel synthesis, reaction kinetics and thermodynamics," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 270(C).
    5. Camilo Andrés Guerrero-Martin & Juan Sebastián Fernández-Ramírez & Jaime Eduardo Arturo-Calvache & Harvey Andrés Milquez-Sanabria & Fernando Antonio da Silva Fernandes & Vando José Costa Gomes & Wanes, 2023. "Exergy Load Distribution Analysis Applied to the Dehydration of Ethanol by Extractive Distillation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(8), pages 1-14, April.
    6. Maya Yaghi & Sandra Chidiac & Sary Awad & Youssef El Rayess & Nancy Zgheib, 2025. "An Overview of Biodiesel Production via Heterogeneous Catalysts: Synthesis, Current Advances, and Challenges," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 7(3), pages 1-55, July.
    7. Kheiralipour, Kamran & Khoobbakht, Mohammad & Karimi, Mahmoud, 2024. "Effect of biodiesel on environmental impacts of diesel mechanical power generation by life cycle assessment," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 289(C).
    8. He, Xin & Wang, Ning & Zhou, Qiaoqiao & Huang, Jun & Ramakrishna, Seeram & Li, Fanghua, 2024. "Smart aviation biofuel energy system coupling with machine learning technology," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 189(PB).
    9. Wang, Qingqiang & Hou, Jili & Wei, Xing & Jin, Nan & Ma, Yue & Li, Shuyuan & Zhao, Yuchao, 2022. "Advanced exergoenvironmental analysis of the oil shale retorting process with SJ-type rectangular retort," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 260(C).
    10. Maleki, Basir & Esmaeili, Hossein, 2023. "Ultrasound-assisted conversion of waste frying oil into biodiesel using Al-doped ZnO nanocatalyst: Box-Behnken design-based optimization," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 209(C), pages 10-26.
    11. Eldiehy, Khalifa S.H. & Gohain, Minakshi & Daimary, Niran & Borah, Doljit & Mandal, Manabendra & Deka, Dhanapati, 2022. "Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) leaves: A novel source for a highly efficient heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production using waste soybean cooking oil and Scenedesmus obliquus oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 191(C), pages 888-901.
    12. Atelge, M.R., 2022. "Production of biodiesel and hydrogen by using a double-function heterogeneous catalyst derived from spent coffee grounds and its thermodynamic analysis," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 198(C), pages 1-15.
    13. Zeeshan, Muhammad & Ghazanfar, Sadia & Tariq, Muhammad & Asif, Hafiz Muhammad & Hussain, Ajaz & Usman, Muhamamd & Khan, Muhammad Ali & Mahmood, Khalid & Sirajuddin, Muhammad & Imran, Muhammad, 2023. "Synthesis of novel ternary NiO–CdO-Nd2O3 nanocomposite for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 210(C), pages 800-809.
    14. Das, Arpita & Li, Hui & Kataki, Rupam & Agrawal, Pratibha S. & Moyon, N.S. & Gurunathan, Baskar & Rokhum, Samuel Lalthazuala, 2023. "Terminalia arjuna bark – A highly efficient renewable heterogeneous base catalyst for biodiesel production," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 212(C), pages 185-196.
    15. Maleki, Basir & Ashraf Talesh, S. Siamak, 2022. "Optimization of ZnO incorporation to αFe2O3 nanoparticles as an efficient catalyst for biodiesel production in a sonoreactor: Application on the CI engine," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 182(C), pages 43-59.
    16. Gollangi, Raju & K, NagamalleswaraRao, 2022. "Energy, exergy analysis of conceptually designed monochloromethane production process from hydrochlorination of methanol," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 239(PA).
    17. Maleki, Basir & Ashraf Talesh, S. Siamak, 2024. "Sustainable biodiesel production from wild oak (Quercus brantii Lindl) oil as a novel and potential feedstock via highly efficient Co@CuO nanocatalyst: RSM optimization and CI engine assessment," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 224(C).
    18. Khoobbakht, Golmohammad & Kheiralipour, Kamran & Yuan, Wenqiao & Seifi, Mohammad Reza & Karimi, Mahmoud, 2020. "Desirability function approach for optimization of enzymatic transesterification catalyzed by lipase immobilized on mesoporous magnetic nanoparticles," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 158(C), pages 253-262.
    19. Petchsoongsakul, Nattawat & Ngaosuwan, Kanokwan & Kiatkittipong, Worapon & Wongsawaeng, Doonyapong & Assabumrungrat, Suttichai, 2020. "Different water removal methods for facilitating biodiesel production from low-cost waste cooking oil containing high water content in hybridized reactive distillation," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 1906-1918.
    20. Peng, Lizeng & Bahadoran, Ashkan & Sheidaei, Sina & Joolaei Ahranjani, Parham & Kamyab, Hesam & Oryani, Bahareh & Sadia Arain, Sadaf & Rezania, Shahabaldin, 2024. "Magnetic graphene oxide supported tin oxide (SnO) nanocomposite as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from soybean oil," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 224(C).

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:bjf:journl:v:11:y:2026:i:3:p:520-543. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Dr. Renu Malsaria (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijrias/ .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.