IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/prs/ecstat/estat_0336-1454_2005_num_386_1_7188.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Les salaires sont-ils rigides ? Le cas de la France à la fin des années 1990 ; suivi d'un commentaire de Hubert Kempf

Author

Listed:
  • Pierre Biscourp
  • Orietta Dessy
  • Nathalie Fourcade
  • Hubert Kempf

Abstract

[fre] Les salaires sont-ils rigides? Le cas de la France à la fi n des années 1990 . . Les salaires sont rigides s’ils varient «moins qu’ils ne devraient», parce que des mécanismes économiques, des attitudes psychologiques ou des contraintes institutionnelles font obstacle à leur ajustement, en particulier à la baisse. Les tests empiriques de rigidités à la baisse sont fragiles. Ils reposent sur des hypothèses ad hoc portant sur la forme qu’aurait la distribution des variations de salaires en l’absence de rigidités salariales. Sous les hypothèses standard, une proportion importante de variations nulles des salaires, associée à une faible proportion de baisses, est interprétée comme signalant l’existence de rigidités. L’analyse menée pour la France à partir de quatre sources d’information sur les salariés à temps complet du secteur marchand suggère que l’application de ces tests à des données d’enquêtes auprès des ménages conduit à une forte surestimation de la rigidité des salaires. À partir de sources réputées fi ables, on montre que les salaires sont très variables en France à la fi n des années 1990. Chaque année, 20 à 30 % des salariés voient leur rémunération baisser. Les variations nulles d’une année sur l’autre sont rares. En revanche, les variations du salaire de base, qui n’incorpore pas les primes, présentent des caractéristiques compatibles avec la présence de rigidités. La variabilité des salaires serait ainsi pour partie due à celle des primes. L’analyse suggère une autre forme de rigidités salariales, qui prend la forme d’un ajustement partiel des salaires aux chocs de productivité touchant les entreprises, ajustement plus marqué en cas de choc positif qu’en cas de choc négatif. [ger] Sind die Löhne rigide? Situation in Frankreich Ende der 1990er Jahre . . Löhne sind rigide, wenn sie "weniger schwanken, als sie müssten“, da wirtschaftliche Mechanismen, psychologische Einstellungen oder institutionelle Sachzwänge deren Anpassung, insbesondere deren Senkung behindern. Die empirischen Tests der Lohnsenkungsrigiditäten sind fragil. Sie beruhen auf Ad-hoc-Hypothesen über die Form, die die Verteilung der Lohnschwankungen bei Fehlen von Lohnrigiditäten hätte. Bei Zugrundelegung der Standardhypothesen wird ein bedeutender Anteil von Nullschwankungen der Löhne in Verbindung mit einem geringen Anteil von Senkungen als Hinweis auf das Vorhandensein von Rigiditäten interpretiert. Die für Frankreich anhand von vier Informationsquellen über die Vollzeitbeschäftigten des marktbestimmten Sektors durchgeführte Analyse deutet darauf hin, dass die Anwendung dieser Tests auf Daten aus Erhebungen bei Haushalten zu einer starken Überschätzung der Lohnrigidität führt. Auf der Grundlage verlässlicher Quellen wird gezeigt, dass die Löhne in Frankreich Ende der 1990er Jahre sehr variabel waren. Jedes Jahr ging der Lohn von 20 bis 30 % der Arbeitnehmer zurück. Jährliche Nullschwankungen waren selten. Dagegen weisen die Schwankungen des Grundlohns, der die Zulagen nicht berücksichtigt, Merkmale auf, die mit dem Vorhandensein von Rigiditäten vereinbar sind. Mithin wäre die Variabilität der Löhne zum Teil auf diejenige der Zulagen zurückzuführen. Die Analyse lässt auf eine andere Art von Lohnrigiditäten schließen, die die Form einer partiellen Lohnanpassung an die Produktivitätsschocks hat, mit denen die Unternehmen konfrontiert sind; eine Anpassung, die bei einem positiven Schock ausgeprägter ist als bei einem negativen Schock. [spa] ¿ Son rígidos los salarios? El caso de Francia a fi nales de los noventa . . Los salarios son rígidos si varían «menos de lo que deberían», porque unos mecanismos económicos, unas actitudes psicológicas o unos obstáculos institucionales se oponen a su ajuste en especial a la baja. Las pruebas empíricas de rigideces a la baja son frágiles. Descansan en unas hipótesis ad hoc en cuanto a la forma que tendría la distribución de las variaciones de los salarios de no haber rigideces salariales. Bajo las hipótesis estándares, una fuerte proporción de variaciones nulas de los salarios, asociada a una pequeña proporción de bajas, se interpreta como la señal de la presencia de rigideces. El análisis llevado a cabo en Francia a partir de cuatro fuentes informativas sobre los asalariados de tiempo completo del sector comercial sugiere que la aplicación de estas pruebas a unos datos de encuestas acerca de los hogares desemboca en una fuerte sobreestimación de la rigidez de los salarios. A partir de unas fuentes segura, se muestra aquí que los salarios son muy variables en Francia a fi nales de los noventa. Cada año, entre un 20 % y un 30 % de los asalariados ven bajar su remuneración. Las variaciones nulas de un año al otro son poco frecuentes. En cambio, las variaciones del salario básico que no incluye las primas, presentan unas características compatibles con la presencia de rigideces. La variabilidad de los salarios se debería por parte a la de las primas. El análisis sugiere otra forma de rigideces salariales, que se presenta bajo la forma de un ajuste parcial de los salarios a los choques de productividad que afectan a las empresas, ajuste más fuerte en caso de choque positivo que en caso de choque negativo. [eng] Are wages rigid? The case of France in the late 1990s . . Wages are rigid if they vary "less than they should” because economic mechanisms, mental attitudes or institutional constraints prevent them from changing, especially decreasing. Empirical tests of downward rigidities are not robust. They are based on ad-hoc assumptions regarding the shape that the distribution of wage variations would have if the wage rigidities were absent. Under standard assumptions, a large proportion of zero wage variations due to a small proportion of decreases is interpreted as indicating the existence of rigidities. An analysis made for France based on four sources of information on full-time wages in the market sector suggests that the application of these tests to household survey data greatly overestimates wage rigidity. We use reputedly reliable sources to show that wages were highly variable in France in the late 1990s. Every year, wages fell for 20% to 30% of employees. Zero variations from one year to the next were rare. However, basic wage variations, excluding bonuses, displayed characteristics compatible with the presence of rigidities. Wage variability is therefore posited to be partly due to the variability of bonuses. The analysis suggests that another form of wage rigidities exists in the shape of a partial adjustment of wages to productivity shocks affecting fi rms. This adjustment is more marked in the case of a positive shock than in the case of a negative shock.

Suggested Citation

  • Pierre Biscourp & Orietta Dessy & Nathalie Fourcade & Hubert Kempf, 2005. "Les salaires sont-ils rigides ? Le cas de la France à la fin des années 1990 ; suivi d'un commentaire de Hubert Kempf," Économie et Statistique, Programme National Persée, vol. 386(1), pages 59-89.
  • Handle: RePEc:prs:ecstat:estat_0336-1454_2005_num_386_1_7188
    DOI: 10.3406/estat.2005.7188
    Note: DOI:10.3406/estat.2005.7188
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://doi.org/10.3406/estat.2005.7188
    Download Restriction: no

    File URL: https://www.persee.fr/doc/estat_0336-1454_2005_num_386_1_7188
    Download Restriction: no

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.3406/estat.2005.7188?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. David Altig & Lawrence Christiano & Martin Eichenbaum & Jesper Linde, 2011. "Firm-Specific Capital, Nominal Rigidities and the Business Cycle," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 14(2), pages 225-247, April.
    2. N. Gregory Mankiw & Ricardo Reis, 2002. "Sticky Information versus Sticky Prices: A Proposal to Replace the New Keynesian Phillips Curve," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 117(4), pages 1295-1328.
    3. McCallum, Bennett T., 1999. "Issues in the design of monetary policy rules," Handbook of Macroeconomics, in: J. B. Taylor & M. Woodford (ed.), Handbook of Macroeconomics, edition 1, volume 1, chapter 23, pages 1483-1530, Elsevier.
    4. Akerlof, George A & Yellen, Janet L, 1985. "Can Small Deviations from Rationality Make Significant Differences to Economic Equilibria?," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 75(4), pages 708-720, September.
    5. David Card & Francis Kramarz & Thomas Lemieux, 1999. "Changes in the Relative Structure of Wages and Employment: A Comparison of the United States, Canada, and France," Canadian Journal of Economics, Canadian Economics Association, vol. 32(4), pages 843-877, August.
    6. Mark Gertler & Jordi Gali & Richard Clarida, 1999. "The Science of Monetary Policy: A New Keynesian Perspective," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 37(4), pages 1661-1707, December.
    7. David Altig & Lawrence Christiano & Martin Eichenbaum & Jesper Linde, 2011. "Firm-Specific Capital, Nominal Rigidities and the Business Cycle," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 14(2), pages 225-247, April.
    8. Emmanuel Dhyne & Luis J. Álvarez & Hervé Le Bihan & Giovanni Veronese & Daniel Dias & Johannes Hoffmann & Nicole Jonker & Patrick Lünnemann & Fabio Rumler & Jouko Vilmunen, 2005. "Price setting in the euro area: Some stylized facts from Individual Consumer Price Data," Working Paper Research 74, National Bank of Belgium.
    9. Taylor, John B, 1980. "Aggregate Dynamics and Staggered Contracts," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 88(1), pages 1-23, February.
    10. Mark Bils & Peter J. Klenow, 2004. "Some Evidence on the Importance of Sticky Prices," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 112(5), pages 947-985, October.
    11. V. V. Chari & Patrick J. Kehoe & Ellen R. McGrattan, 2000. "Sticky Price Models of the Business Cycle: Can the Contract Multiplier Solve the Persistence Problem?," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 68(5), pages 1151-1180, September.
    12. Olivier Jean Blanchard & Stanley Fischer, 1989. "Lectures on Macroeconomics," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 1, volume 1, number 0262022834, December.
    13. Calvo, Guillermo A., 1983. "Staggered prices in a utility-maximizing framework," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 12(3), pages 383-398, September.
    14. Mark Gertler & Jordi Gali & Richard Clarida, 1999. "The Science of Monetary Policy: A New Keynesian Perspective," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 37(4), pages 1661-1707, December.
    15. Robert J. Barro, 1972. "A Theory of Monopolistic Price Adjustment," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 39(1), pages 17-26.
    16. John B. Taylor, 1999. "Monetary Policy Rules," NBER Books, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc, number tayl99-1, March.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Julián Messina & Cláudia Filipa Duarte & Mario Izquierdo & Philip Du Caju & Niels Lynggård Hansen, 2010. "The Incidence of Nominal and Real Wage Rigidity: An Individual-Based Sectoral Approach," Journal of the European Economic Association, MIT Press, vol. 8(2-3), pages 487-496, 04-05.
    2. Fuss, Catherine, 2008. "How do firms adjust their wage bill in Belgium? A decomposition along the intensive and extensive margins," Working Paper Series 854, European Central Bank.
    3. Emmanuel Dhyne & Jerzy Konieczny & Fabio Rumler & Patrick Sevestre, 2009. "Price rigidity in the euro area - An assessment," European Economy - Economic Papers 2008 - 2015 380, Directorate General Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN), European Commission.
    4. Du Caju, Philip & Fuss, Catherine & Wintr, Ladislav, 2009. "Understanding sectoral differences in downward real wage rigidity: workforce composition, institutions, technology and competition," Working Paper Series 1006, European Central Bank.
    5. Fuss, Catherine, 2009. "What is the most flexible component of wage bill adjustment? Evidence from Belgium," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 16(3), pages 320-329, June.
    6. Fuss, Catherine & Wintr, Ladislav & Du Caju, Philip, 2007. "Downward wage rigidity for different workers and firms: an evaluation for Belgium using the IWFP procedure," Working Paper Series 840, European Central Bank.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Andrew T. Levin & Alexei Onatski & John Williams & Noah M. Williams, 2006. "Monetary Policy under Uncertainty in Micro-Founded Macroeconometric Models," NBER Chapters, in: NBER Macroeconomics Annual 2005, Volume 20, pages 229-312, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    2. Wieland, Volker & Cwik, Tobias & Müller, Gernot J. & Schmidt, Sebastian & Wolters, Maik, 2012. "A new comparative approach to macroeconomic modeling and policy analysis," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 83(3), pages 523-541.
    3. Thorvardur Tjörvi Ólafsson, 2006. "The New Keynesian Phillips Curve: In Search of Improvements and Adaptation to the Open Economy," Economics wp31_tjorvi, Department of Economics, Central bank of Iceland.
    4. Schmidt, Sebastian & Wieland, Volker, 2013. "The New Keynesian Approach to Dynamic General Equilibrium Modeling: Models, Methods and Macroeconomic Policy Evaluation," Handbook of Computable General Equilibrium Modeling, in: Peter B. Dixon & Dale Jorgenson (ed.), Handbook of Computable General Equilibrium Modeling, edition 1, volume 1, chapter 0, pages 1439-1512, Elsevier.
    5. Trabandt, Mathias, 2003. "Sticky Information vs. Sticky Prices : A Horse Race in a DSGE Framework," SFB 373 Discussion Papers 2003,41, Humboldt University of Berlin, Interdisciplinary Research Project 373: Quantification and Simulation of Economic Processes.
    6. Merkl, Christian & Snower, Dennis, 2009. "Monetary Persistence, Imperfect Competition, And Staggering Complementarities," Macroeconomic Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, vol. 13(1), pages 81-106, February.
    7. John B. Taylor & Volker Wieland, 2009. "Surprising Comparative Properties of Monetary Models: Results from a New Data Base," NBER Working Papers 14849, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    8. Calvo, Guillermo & Celasun, Oya & Kumhof, Michael, 2007. "Inflation inertia and credible disinflation," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 73(1), pages 48-68, September.
    9. Michael Paetz, 2007. "Robust Control and Persistence in the New Keynesian Economy," Quantitative Macroeconomics Working Papers 20711, Hamburg University, Department of Economics.
    10. Federico Di Pace & Matthias Hertweck, 2019. "Labor Market Frictions, Monetary Policy, and Durable Goods," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 32, pages 274-304, April.
    11. Coenen, Gunter & Wieland, Volker, 2005. "A small estimated euro area model with rational expectations and nominal rigidities," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 49(5), pages 1081-1104, July.
    12. Mash, Richard, 2002. "New Keynesian Microfoundations Revisited: A Generalised Calvo-Taylor Model and the Desirability of Inflation vs. Price Level Targeting," Royal Economic Society Annual Conference 2002 138, Royal Economic Society.
    13. Migliardo, Carlo, 2012. "Heterogeneity in price setting behavior, spatial disparities and sectoral diversity: Evidence from a panel of Italian firms," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 29(4), pages 1106-1118.
    14. Etienne Gagnon & David López-Salido & Nicolas Vincent, 2013. "Individual Price Adjustment along the Extensive Margin," NBER Macroeconomics Annual, University of Chicago Press, vol. 27(1), pages 235-281.
    15. Bonomo, Marco Antônio Cesar & Carvalho, Carlos Viana de, 2003. "Endogenous time-dependent rules and the costs of disinflation with imperfect credibility," FGV EPGE Economics Working Papers (Ensaios Economicos da EPGE) 505, EPGE Brazilian School of Economics and Finance - FGV EPGE (Brazil).
    16. Emi Nakamura & Jón Steinsson, 2010. "Monetary Non-neutrality in a Multisector Menu Cost Model," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 125(3), pages 961-1013.
    17. Gregory Erin Givens, 2006. "Revisiting the Delegation Problem in a Sticky Price and Wage Economy," Working Papers 200601, Middle Tennessee State University, Department of Economics and Finance.
    18. Huang, Kevin X.D. & Meng, Qinglai & Xue, Jianpo, 2009. "Is forward-looking inflation targeting destabilizing? The role of policy's response to current output under endogenous investment," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 33(2), pages 409-430, February.
    19. Fair, Ray C., 2007. "Evaluating Inflation Targeting Using a Macroeconometric Model," Economics - The Open-Access, Open-Assessment E-Journal (2007-2020), Kiel Institute for the World Economy (IfW Kiel), vol. 1, pages 1-52.
    20. Andres, Javier & Lopez-Salido, J. David & Nelson, Edward, 2005. "Sticky-price models and the natural rate hypothesis," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 52(5), pages 1025-1053, July.

    More about this item

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:prs:ecstat:estat_0336-1454_2005_num_386_1_7188. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Equipe PERSEE (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.persee.fr/collection/estat .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.