IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v15y2022i24p9557-d1005679.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions

Author

Listed:
  • Shantanu Pardhi

    (ETEC Department & MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
    Flanders Make, Gaston Geenslaan 8, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium)

  • Sajib Chakraborty

    (ETEC Department & MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
    Flanders Make, Gaston Geenslaan 8, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium)

  • Dai-Duong Tran

    (ETEC Department & MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
    Flanders Make, Gaston Geenslaan 8, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium)

  • Mohamed El Baghdadi

    (ETEC Department & MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
    Flanders Make, Gaston Geenslaan 8, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium)

  • Steven Wilkins

    (Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast-Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek TNO, Automotive Campus 30, 5708 JZ Helmond, The Netherlands)

  • Omar Hegazy

    (ETEC Department & MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussel, Belgium
    Flanders Make, Gaston Geenslaan 8, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium)

Abstract

Long-haul heavy-duty vehicles, including trucks and coaches, contribute to a substantial portion of the modern-day European carbon footprint and pose a major challenge in emissions reduction due to their energy-intensive usage. Depending on the hydrogen fuel source, the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) for long-haul applications has shown significant potential in reducing road freight CO 2 emissions until the possible maturity of future long-distance battery-electric mobility. Fuel cell heavy-duty (HD) propulsion presents some specific characteristics, advantages and operating constraints, along with the notable possibility of gains in powertrain efficiency and usability through improved system design and intelligent onboard energy and thermal management. This paper provides an overview of the FCEV powertrain topology suited for long-haul HD applications, their operating limitations, cooling requirements, waste heat recovery techniques, state-of-the-art in powertrain control, energy and thermal management strategies and over-the-air route data based predictive powertrain management including V2X connectivity. A case study simulation analysis of an HD 40-tonne FCEV truck is also presented, focusing on the comparison of powertrain losses and energy expenditures in different subsystems while running on VECTO Regional delivery and Longhaul cycles. The importance of hydrogen fuel production pathways, onboard storage approaches, refuelling and safety standards, and fleet management is also discussed. Through a comprehensive review of the H 2 fuel cell powertrain technology, intelligent energy management, thermal management requirements and strategies, and challenges in hydrogen production, storage and refuelling, this article aims at helping stakeholders in the promotion and integration of H 2 FCEV technology towards road freight decarbonisation.

Suggested Citation

  • Shantanu Pardhi & Sajib Chakraborty & Dai-Duong Tran & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Steven Wilkins & Omar Hegazy, 2022. "A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(24), pages 1-55, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:15:y:2022:i:24:p:9557-:d:1005679
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/24/9557/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/24/9557/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Frans J. R. Verbruggen & Emilia Silvas & Theo Hofman, 2020. "Electric Powertrain Topology Analysis and Design for Heavy-Duty Trucks," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(10), pages 1-30, May.
    2. Ethelbert Ezemobi & Mario Silvagni & Ahmad Mozaffari & Andrea Tonoli & Amir Khajepour, 2022. "State of Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles under Dynamic Load Conditions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-20, February.
    3. Chen, Qin & Zhang, Guobin & Zhang, Xuzhong & Sun, Cheng & Jiao, Kui & Wang, Yun, 2021. "Thermal management of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: A review of cooling methods, material properties, and durability," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 286(C).
    4. Shen, Zu-Guo & Chen, Shuai & Liu, Xun & Chen, Ben, 2021. "A review on thermal management performance enhancement of phase change materials for vehicle lithium-ion batteries," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 148(C).
    5. Hu, Xiaosong & Zhang, Xiaoqian & Tang, Xiaolin & Lin, Xianke, 2020. "Model predictive control of hybrid electric vehicles for fuel economy, emission reductions, and inter-vehicle safety in car-following scenarios," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).
    6. Sara Luciani & Andrea Tonoli, 2022. "Control Strategy Assessment for Improving PEM Fuel Cell System Efficiency in Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(6), pages 1-17, March.
    7. Edwards, P.P. & Kuznetsov, V.L. & David, W.I.F. & Brandon, N.P., 2008. "Hydrogen and fuel cells: Towards a sustainable energy future," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 36(12), pages 4356-4362, December.
    8. Ho-Seong Lee & Choong-Won Cho & Jae-Hyeong Seo & Moo-Yeon Lee, 2016. "Cooling Performance Characteristics of the Stack Thermal Management System for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles under Actual Driving Conditions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 9(5), pages 1-14, April.
    9. Shantanu Pardhi & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Oswin Hulsebos & Omar Hegazy, 2022. "Optimal Powertrain Sizing of Series Hybrid Coach Running on Diesel and HVO for Lifetime Carbon Footprint and Total Cost Minimisation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(19), pages 1-28, September.
    10. Sajib Chakraborty & Hai-Nam Vu & Mohammed Mahedi Hasan & Dai-Duong Tran & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Omar Hegazy, 2019. "DC-DC Converter Topologies for Electric Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Fast Charging Stations: State of the Art and Future Trends," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-43, April.
    11. Olivier Bethoux, 2020. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles and Their Infrastructure: An Option towards an Environmentally Friendly Energy Transition," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(22), pages 1-27, November.
    12. Shusheng Xiong & Zhankuan Wu & Wei Li & Daize Li & Teng Zhang & Yu Lan & Xiaoxuan Zhang & Shuyan Ye & Shuhao Peng & Zeyu Han & Jiarui Zhu & Qiujie Song & Zhixiao Jiao & Xiaofeng Wu & Heqing Huang, 2021. "Improvement of Temperature and Humidity Control of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(19), pages 1-14, September.
    13. Geerten Van de Kaa & Daniel Scholten & Jafar Rezaei & Christine Milchram, 2017. "The Battle between Battery and Fuel Cell Powered Electric Vehicles: A BWM Approach," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(11), pages 1-13, October.
    14. Elkhatib Kamal & Lounis Adouane, 2022. "Optimized EMS and a Comparative Study of Hybrid Hydrogen Fuel Cell/Battery Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-20, January.
    15. Tran, Dai-Duong & Vafaeipour, Majid & El Baghdadi, Mohamed & Barrero, Ricardo & Van Mierlo, Joeri & Hegazy, Omar, 2020. "Thorough state-of-the-art analysis of electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains: Topologies and integrated energy management strategies," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 119(C).
    16. Alijanpour sheshpoli, Mohamad & Mousavi Ajarostaghi, Seyed Soheil & Delavar, Mojtaba Aghajani, 2018. "Waste heat recovery from a 1180 kW proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system by Recuperative organic Rankine cycle (RORC)," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 157(C), pages 353-366.
    17. Ioan-Sorin Sorlei & Nicu Bizon & Phatiphat Thounthong & Mihai Varlam & Elena Carcadea & Mihai Culcer & Mariana Iliescu & Mircea Raceanu, 2021. "Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles—A Brief Review of Current Topologies and Energy Management Strategies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(1), pages 1-29, January.
    18. Singh, B. & Mohamed, W.A.N.W. & Hamani, M.N.F. & Sofiya, K.Z.N.A., 2021. "Enhancement of low grade waste heat recovery from a fuel cell using a thermoelectric generator module with swirl flows," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 236(C).
    19. Alan Cruz Rojas & Guadalupe Lopez Lopez & J. F. Gomez-Aguilar & Victor M. Alvarado & Cinda Luz Sandoval Torres, 2017. "Control of the Air Supply Subsystem in a PEMFC with Balance of Plant Simulation," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(1), pages 1-23, January.
    20. Apostolou, D. & Xydis, G., 2019. "A literature review on hydrogen refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and future prospects," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 1-1.
    21. Muhammad Rizalul Wahid & Bentang Arief Budiman & Endra Joelianto & Muhammad Aziz, 2021. "A Review on Drive Train Technologies for Passenger Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(20), pages 1-24, October.
    22. Sebastian Wolff & Svenja Kalt & Manuel Bstieler & Markus Lienkamp, 2021. "Influence of Powertrain Topology and Electric Machine Design on Efficiency of Battery Electric Trucks—A Simulative Case-Study," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(2), pages 1-15, January.
    23. Aiyun Gao & Xiaozhong Deng & Mingzhu Zhang & Zhumu Fu, 2017. "Design and Validation of Real-Time Optimal Control with ECMS to Minimize Energy Consumption for Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles," Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Hindawi, vol. 2017, pages 1-13, January.
    24. Chang, Yafei & Qin, Yanzhou & Yin, Yan & Zhang, Junfeng & Li, Xianguo, 2018. "Humidification strategy for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells – A review," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 230(C), pages 643-662.
    25. Alexander Wahl & Christoph Wellmann & Björn Krautwig & Patrick Manns & Bicheng Chen & Christof Schernus & Jakob Andert, 2022. "Efficiency Increase through Model Predictive Thermal Control of Electric Vehicle Powertrains," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-21, February.
    26. Changqing Du & Shiyang Huang & Yuyao Jiang & Dongmei Wu & Yang Li, 2022. "Optimization of Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Dynamic Programming," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(12), pages 1-25, June.
    27. Tianqi He & Rongqi Shi & Jie Peng & Weilin Zhuge & Yangjun Zhang, 2016. "Waste Heat Recovery of a PEMFC System by Using Organic Rankine Cycle," Energies, MDPI, vol. 9(4), pages 1-15, April.
    28. Singh, Sonal & Jain, Shikha & PS, Venkateswaran & Tiwari, Avanish K. & Nouni, Mansa R. & Pandey, Jitendra K. & Goel, Sanket, 2015. "Hydrogen: A sustainable fuel for future of the transport sector," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 623-633.
    29. Hou, Junbo & Yang, Min & Zhang, Junliang, 2020. "Active and passive fuel recirculation for solid oxide and proton exchange membrane fuel cells," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 155(C), pages 1355-1371.
    30. Yuanfeng Lan & Yassine Benomar & Kritika Deepak & Ahmet Aksoz & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Emine Bostanci & Omar Hegazy, 2021. "Switched Reluctance Motors and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicle Powertrains: State of the Art Analysis and Future Trends," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(8), pages 1-29, April.
    31. Jun Wang & Qing-nian Wang & Peng-yu Wang & Xiao-hua Zeng, 2014. "The Development and Verification of a Novel ECMS of Hybrid Electric Bus," Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Hindawi, vol. 2014, pages 1-14, March.
    32. Adrian König & Sebastian Mayer & Lorenzo Nicoletti & Stephan Tumphart & Markus Lienkamp, 2022. "The Impact of HVAC on the Development of Autonomous and Electric Vehicle Concepts," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(2), pages 1-20, January.
    33. Noshin Omar & Mohamed Daowd & Omar Hegazy & Grietus Mulder & Jean-Marc Timmermans & Thierry Coosemans & Peter Van den Bossche & Joeri Van Mierlo, 2012. "Standardization Work for BEV and HEV Applications: Critical Appraisal of Recent Traction Battery Documents," Energies, MDPI, vol. 5(1), pages 1-19, January.
    34. Shabbir, Wassif & Evangelou, Simos A., 2019. "Threshold-changing control strategy for series hybrid electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 235(C), pages 761-775.
    35. Giorgio Previati & Giampiero Mastinu & Massimiliano Gobbi, 2022. "Thermal Management of Electrified Vehicles—A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-29, February.
    36. Zhongmin Wan & Huawei Chang & Shuiming Shu & Yongxiang Wang & Haolin Tang, 2014. "A Review on Cold Start of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells," Energies, MDPI, vol. 7(5), pages 1-25, May.
    37. Ekaterina Abramushkina & Assel Zhaksylyk & Thomas Geury & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Omar Hegazy, 2021. "A Thorough Review of Cooling Concepts and Thermal Management Techniques for Automotive WBG Inverters: Topology, Technology and Integration Level," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(16), pages 1-21, August.
    38. Schröder, M. & Abdin, Z. & Mérida, W., 2020. "Optimization of distributed energy resources for electric vehicle charging and fuel cell vehicle refueling," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 277(C).
    39. Kyuhyun Sim & Ram Vijayagopal & Namdoo Kim & Aymeric Rousseau, 2019. "Optimization of Component Sizing for a Fuel Cell-Powered Truck to Minimize Ownership Cost," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(6), pages 1-13, March.
    40. Behi, Hamidreza & Karimi, Danial & Jaguemont, Joris & Gandoman, Foad Heidari & Kalogiannis, Theodoros & Berecibar, Maitane & Van Mierlo, Joeri, 2021. "Novel thermal management methods to improve the performance of the Li-ion batteries in high discharge current applications," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 224(C).
    41. Carlo Cunanan & Manh-Kien Tran & Youngwoo Lee & Shinghei Kwok & Vincent Leung & Michael Fowler, 2021. "A Review of Heavy-Duty Vehicle Powertrain Technologies: Diesel Engine Vehicles, Battery Electric Vehicles, and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 3(2), pages 1-16, June.
    42. Manik Mayur & Mathias Gerard & Pascal Schott & Wolfgang G. Bessler, 2018. "Lifetime Prediction of a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell under Automotive Load Cycling Using a Physically-Based Catalyst Degradation Model," Energies, MDPI, vol. 11(8), pages 1-21, August.
    43. Olivier Bethoux, 2020. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles: State of the Art and Perspectives," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(21), pages 1-28, November.
    44. Nicu Bizon & Mircea Raceanu & Emmanouel Koudoumas & Adriana Marinoiu & Emmanuel Karapidakis & Elena Carcadea, 2020. "Renewable/Fuel Cell Hybrid Power System Operation Using Two Search Controllers of the Optimal Power Needed on the DC Bus," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(22), pages 1-26, November.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Muhammad Sheraz & Woojin Choi, 2023. "A Novel Technique for Fast Ohmic Resistance Measurement to Evaluate the Aging of Lithium-Ion xEVs Batteries," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-15, February.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Carlo Cunanan & Manh-Kien Tran & Youngwoo Lee & Shinghei Kwok & Vincent Leung & Michael Fowler, 2021. "A Review of Heavy-Duty Vehicle Powertrain Technologies: Diesel Engine Vehicles, Battery Electric Vehicles, and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 3(2), pages 1-16, June.
    2. Youssef Amry & Elhoussin Elbouchikhi & Franck Le Gall & Mounir Ghogho & Soumia El Hani, 2022. "Electric Vehicle Traction Drives and Charging Station Power Electronics: Current Status and Challenges," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-30, August.
    3. Matthieu Matignon & Toufik Azib & Mehdi Mcharek & Ahmed Chaibet & Adriano Ceschia, 2023. "Real-Time Integrated Energy Management Strategy Applied to Fuel Cell Hybrid Systems," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-21, March.
    4. Dimitrios Rimpas & Stavrοs D. Kaminaris & Dimitrios D. Piromalis & George Vokas & Konstantinos G. Arvanitis & Christos-Spyridon Karavas, 2023. "Comparative Review of Motor Technologies for Electric Vehicles Powered by a Hybrid Energy Storage System Based on Multi-Criteria Analysis," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-24, March.
    5. Olivier Bethoux, 2020. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell Road Vehicles: State of the Art and Perspectives," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(21), pages 1-28, November.
    6. Vamsi Krishna Reddy, Aala Kalananda & Venkata Lakshmi Narayana, Komanapalli, 2022. "Meta-heuristics optimization in electric vehicles -an extensive review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 160(C).
    7. Antonio Nicolò Mancino & Carla Menale & Francesco Vellucci & Manlio Pasquali & Roberto Bubbico, 2023. "PEM Fuel Cell Applications in Road Transport," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(17), pages 1-27, August.
    8. Anselma, Pier Giuseppe & Belingardi, Giovanni, 2022. "Fuel cell electrified propulsion systems for long-haul heavy-duty trucks: present and future cost-oriented sizing," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 321(C).
    9. Shi, Dehua & Liu, Sheng & Cai, Yingfeng & Wang, Shaohua & Li, Haoran & Chen, Long, 2021. "Pontryagin’s minimum principle based fuzzy adaptive energy management for hybrid electric vehicle using real-time traffic information," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 286(C).
    10. Ahmed Mohmed Dafalla & Lin Wei & Bereket Tsegai Habte & Jian Guo & Fangming Jiang, 2022. "Membrane Electrode Assembly Degradation Modeling of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(23), pages 1-26, December.
    11. Chen, Z. & Liu, Y. & Ye, M. & Zhang, Y. & Chen, Z. & Li, G., 2021. "A survey on key techniques and development perspectives of equivalent consumption minimisation strategy for hybrid electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).
    12. Chen, Jiaxin & Shu, Hong & Tang, Xiaolin & Liu, Teng & Wang, Weida, 2022. "Deep reinforcement learning-based multi-objective control of hybrid power system combined with road recognition under time-varying environment," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 239(PC).
    13. Tobias Mueller & Steven Gronau, 2023. "Fostering Macroeconomic Research on Hydrogen-Powered Aviation: A Systematic Literature Review on General Equilibrium Models," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-33, February.
    14. Assareh, Ehsanolah & Mousavi Asl, Seyed Sajad & Agarwal, Neha & Ahmadinejad, Mehrdad & Ghodrat, Maryam & Lee, Moonyong, 2023. "New optimized configuration for a hybrid PVT solar/electrolyzer/absorption chiller system utilizing the response surface method as a machine learning technique and multi-objective optimization," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 281(C).
    15. Abdulgader Alsharif & Chee Wei Tan & Razman Ayop & Ahmed Al Smin & Abdussalam Ali Ahmed & Farag Hamed Kuwil & Mohamed Mohamed Khaleel, 2023. "Impact of Electric Vehicle on Residential Power Distribution Considering Energy Management Strategy and Stochastic Monte Carlo Algorithm," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-22, January.
    16. Danijel Pavković & Mihael Cipek & Filip Plavac & Juraj Karlušić & Matija Krznar, 2022. "Internal Combustion Engine Starting and Torque Boosting Control System Design with Vibration Active Damping Features for a P0 Mild Hybrid Vehicle Configuration," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-24, February.
    17. Devin Fowler & Vladimir Gurau & Daniel Cox, 2019. "Bridging the Gap between Automated Manufacturing of Fuel Cell Components and Robotic Assembly of Fuel Cell Stacks," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(19), pages 1-14, September.
    18. Dong, Peng & Zhao, Junwei & Liu, Xuewu & Wu, Jian & Xu, Xiangyang & Liu, Yanfang & Wang, Shuhan & Guo, Wei, 2022. "Practical application of energy management strategy for hybrid electric vehicles based on intelligent and connected technologies: Development stages, challenges, and future trends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 170(C).
    19. Hao Huang & Hua Ding & Donghai Hu & Zhaoxu Cheng & Chengyun Qiu & Yuran Shen & Xiangwen Su, 2023. "Thermal Performance Optimization of Multiple Circuits Cooling System for Fuel Cell Vehicle," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-23, February.
    20. Knorr, Florian & Sanchez, Daniel Garcia & Schirmer, Johannes & Gazdzicki, Pawel & Friedrich, K.A., 2019. "Methanol as antifreeze agent for cold start of automotive polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(C), pages 1-10.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:15:y:2022:i:24:p:9557-:d:1005679. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.