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The State of Rental Discrimination: A Meta-Analytical Comparison of Five Discrimination Grounds in the Housing Market

Author

Listed:
  • Verhaeghe, Pieter-Paul

    (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)

  • Devos, Louise Devos

    (Ghent University)

  • Ghekiere, Abel

    (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)

  • Baert, Stijn

    (Ghent University)

  • Lippens, Louis

    (Ghent University)

Abstract

This meta-analysis compares patterns of rental discrimination across five grounds: ethno-racial origin, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and social origin. We analyze 475 field experimental estimates from 31 countries, published between 2002 and 2024. In the random-effects pooled estimates, discrimination is substantial across all grounds, with the highest levels for ethno-racial origin, social origin, and disability, and smaller penalties for men and same-sex couples. For several grounds, the pooled effect attenuates toward no discrimination after correction for small-study publication bias. Marked heterogeneity exists, including a clear ethno-racial hierarchy with the strongest penalties for Arab, North African or Turkish applicants. Contrary to prior work, discrimination is higher in Europe than in North America for ethno-racial origin and sexual orientation. There is no consistent decline over time, except for social origin. Real estate agents discriminate less than private landlords, but only for ethno-racial origin. Mode-of-contact effects are mixed. Overall, discrimination appears persistent and context-dependent, calling for more targeted and effectively enforced policy interventions.

Suggested Citation

  • Verhaeghe, Pieter-Paul & Devos, Louise Devos & Ghekiere, Abel & Baert, Stijn & Lippens, Louis, 2026. "The State of Rental Discrimination: A Meta-Analytical Comparison of Five Discrimination Grounds in the Housing Market," IZA Discussion Papers 18788, IZA Network @ LISER.
    • Handle: RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18788
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    JEL classification:

    • C93 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Design of Experiments - - - Field Experiments
    • J14 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor Market Discrimination
    • J15 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J71 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Labor Discrimination - - - Hiring and Firing
    • R21 - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics - - Household Analysis - - - Housing Demand

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