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Ethnic identification from pre-birth to early adolescence: longitudinal patterns and methodological considerations

Author

Listed:
  • Esther S. Yao

    (University of Auckland)

  • Polly Atatoa Carr

    (University of Waikato)

  • Kane Meissel

    (University of Auckland)

  • Pat Bullen

    (University of Auckland)

  • Roshini Peiris-John

    (University of Auckland)

  • Sam Manuela

    (University of Auckland)

  • Terryann C. Clark

    (University of Auckland)

Abstract

Ethnicity is a dynamic construct that can be expressed differently depending on the respondent, time point, context, and measurement method, thus resulting in intra-individual ethnic mobility. However, little is known about how ethnic mobility varies by ethnic classification method, despite cross-sectional evidence showing the impact of ethnic classification decisions on research. This study examines the stability and change in ethnic identification from pre-birth to early adolescence using four ethnic classification. Total response grouping, single/combination grouping, administrative-prioritisation, and self-prioritisation. We utilised five data waves from the Growing Up in New Zealand birth cohort study (antenatal, 9-months, 4.5-years, 8-years, 12-years; N = 3,625). Longitudinal changes in ethnic identification were examined using alluvial plots and descriptive statistics (e.g., frequencies, number of distinct states, common sequences, transition rates). Results showed that ethnic mobility was noticeable over time and across classification methods. Depending on the ethnic classification method, the proportion of participants who remained in a single ethnic grouping across five data waves ranged from 39% (single/combination grouping) to 83% (total response grouping). Stability levels also varied by ethnic groupings within each classification method. Given the dynamic and complex nature of ethnicity, researchers should treat ethnicity as a time-varying variable, collect ethnicity data at every data wave, ensure ethnic classification decisions are made with care, and consider the implications of these decisions.

Suggested Citation

  • Esther S. Yao & Polly Atatoa Carr & Kane Meissel & Pat Bullen & Roshini Peiris-John & Sam Manuela & Terryann C. Clark, 2025. "Ethnic identification from pre-birth to early adolescence: longitudinal patterns and methodological considerations," Journal of Population Research, Springer, vol. 42(3), pages 1-25, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:spr:joprea:v:42:y:2025:i:3:d:10.1007_s12546-025-09392-z
    DOI: 10.1007/s12546-025-09392-z
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Esther S. Yao & Kane Meissel & Polly Atatoa Carr & Pat Bullen & Terryann C. Clark & Susan Morton, 2021. "Classifying multiple ethnic identifications: Methodological effects on child, adolescent, and adult ethnic distributions," Demographic Research, Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, Rostock, Germany, vol. 44(21), pages 481-512.
    2. Gabadinho, Alexis & Ritschard, Gilbert & Müller, Nicolas S & Studer, Matthias, 2011. "Analyzing and Visualizing State Sequences in R with TraMineR," Journal of Statistical Software, Foundation for Open Access Statistics, vol. 40(i04).
    3. Patrick Broman & Tahu Kukutai, 2021. "Fixed not fluid: European identification in the Aotearoa New Zealand census," Journal of Population Research, Springer, vol. 38(2), pages 103-138, June.
    4. Ludi Simpson & Stephen Jivraj & James Warren, 2016. "The stability of ethnic identity in England and Wales 2001–2011," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A, Royal Statistical Society, vol. 179(4), pages 1025-1049, October.
    5. Carolyn A. Liebler & Sonya R. Porter & Leticia E. Fernandez & James M. Noon & Sharon R. Ennis, 2017. "America’s Churning Races: Race and Ethnicity Response Changes Between Census 2000 and the 2010 Census," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 54(1), pages 259-284, February.
    6. Carlotta Balestra & Lara Fleischer, 2018. "Diversity statistics in the OECD: How do OECD countries collect data on ethnic, racial and indigenous identity?," OECD Statistics Working Papers 2018/09, OECD Publishing.
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