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Two-level games and bargaining outcomes: why gaiatsu succeeds in Japan in some cases but not others

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  • Schoppa, Leonard J.

Abstract

One of the strengths of Robert Putnam's two-level bargaining game model is its ability to capture how international negotiations make it possible for negotiators to pursue synergistic strategies aimed at improving their prospects for a favorable deal by reshaping politics in both their own and their counterparts' domestic arenas. While reaffirming the utility of this approach, this article argues that Putnam describes only some of the synergistic strategies available to negotiators. In addition to “reverberation†and “synergistic linkage,†a negotiator can also reshape politics in his or her counterpart's domestic arena in two other ways: (1) by transforming decision making in ways that expand elite participation and bring the weight of public opinion to bear on policies that were previously dictated by small groups of privileged domestic actors and (2) by influencing the way in which policy alternatives are considered in the decisionmaking process. Through an examination of the Structural Impediments Initiative, a set of negotiations through which the United States applied a great deal of foreign pressure (gaiaisu) on Japan, the article makes the case for the above modifications to the Putnam model and argues that “participation expansion†strategies are most likely to be successful when involvement in decision making (before foreign intervention) is limited and latent support for foreign demands exists outside the privileged elite, while “alternative specification†is most likely to work when opportunities exist to link favored policy proposals to already recognized domestic problems.

Suggested Citation

  • Schoppa, Leonard J., 1993. "Two-level games and bargaining outcomes: why gaiatsu succeeds in Japan in some cases but not others," International Organization, Cambridge University Press, vol. 47(3), pages 353-386, July.
  • Handle: RePEc:cup:intorg:v:47:y:1993:i:03:p:353-386_02
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    Cited by:

    1. Shun-ichiro Bessho, 2017. "A case study of central and local government finance in Japan," Chapters, in: Naoyuki Yoshino & Peter J. Morgan (ed.), Central and Local Government Relations in Asia, chapter 9, pages 306-332, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    2. Florentine Koppenborg & Ulv Hanssen, 2021. "Japan’s Climate Change Discourse: Toward Climate Securitisation?," Politics and Governance, Cogitatio Press, vol. 9(4), pages 53-64.
    3. Katada, Saori N., 1997. "Two aid hegemons: Japanese-US interaction and aid allocation to Latin America and the Caribbean," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 25(6), pages 931-945, June.
    4. Junk, Julian & Blatter, Joachim, 2010. "Transnational attention, domestic agenda-setting and international agreement: Modeling necessary and sufficient conditions for media-driven humanitarian interventions [Transnationale Aufmerksamkeit," Discussion Papers, Research Unit: Global Governance SP IV 2010-301, WZB Berlin Social Science Center.
    5. Trofimov, Ivan D., 2017. "Political economy of trade protection and liberalization: in search of agency-based and holistic framework of policy change," MPRA Paper 79504, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    6. Bessho, Shun-ichiro & Ogawa, Hikaru, 2015. "Fiscal adjustment in Japanese municipalities," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(4), pages 1053-1068.
    7. Robert Pahre, 1997. "Endogenous Domestic Institutions in Two-Level Games and Parliamentary Oversight of the European Union," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Peace Science Society (International), vol. 41(1), pages 147-174, February.
    8. Lluc López i Vidal, 2022. "Beyond the Gaiatsu Model: Japan’s Asia-Pacific Policy and Neoclassical Realism," Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, , vol. 9(1), pages 26-49, April.
    9. D.G. Victor & O. Greene & J. Lanchberry & J.C. di Primio & A. Korula, 1994. "Review Mechanisms in the Effective Implementation of International Environmental Agreements," Working Papers wp94114, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.
    10. Jean-Pierre P. Langlois & Catherine C. Langlois, 2004. "Holding Out for Concession: The Quest for Gain in the Negotiation of International Agreements," International Interactions, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 32(3), pages 261-293, April.

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