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Geographic Disparities in Service Accessibility in Estonia and the Netherlands: How Transport Modes, Proximity and Capacity Shape Accessibility Across Cities, Towns and Rural Areas

Author

Listed:
  • Almeida, Vanda

    (OECD)

  • Brunelli, Filippo

    (European Commission - Joint Research Centre (JRC))

  • Caisl, Jakub

    (European Commission - DG EMPL)

  • Giordano, Alessandro

    (European Commission - Joint Research Centre (JRC))

  • Hoffmann, Claire

    (OECD)

  • Königs, Sebastian

    (OECD)

  • Moreno-Monroy, Ana

    (OECD)

  • Pacheco, Tainá

    (OECD)

  • Salazar-Lozada, Mauricio

    (OECD)

Abstract

Access to enabling services is an important determinant of labour market participation and social inclusion. This paper examines the role of capacity constraints and public transport access in shaping the accessibility of early childhood education and care (ECEC), primary schools and Public Employment Services (PES) at the municipal level and across degrees of urbanisation in Estonia and the Netherlands, drawing on data on service locations, capacity, enrolment and local transport infrastructure. The results confirm a clear urban-rural gradient in physical accessibility. However, proximity alone provides an incomplete picture: people in more densely populated areas benefit from shorter travel times, but high demand pressure and capacity constraints can result in lower competitive accessibility compared to less densely populated areas. In both countries, 13% to 14% of children in primary school face a double disadvantage of longer travel times and below-median competitive accessibility. For PES, geographic disparities in public transport provision can represent a source of vulnerability for people without access to a private motor vehicle.

Suggested Citation

  • Almeida, Vanda & Brunelli, Filippo & Caisl, Jakub & Giordano, Alessandro & Hoffmann, Claire & Königs, Sebastian & Moreno-Monroy, Ana & Pacheco, Tainá & Salazar-Lozada, Mauricio, 2026. "Geographic Disparities in Service Accessibility in Estonia and the Netherlands: How Transport Modes, Proximity and Capacity Shape Accessibility Across Cities, Towns and Rural Areas," IZA Discussion Papers 18811, IZA Network @ LISER.
    • Handle: RePEc:iza:izadps:dp18811
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    JEL classification:

    • I24 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Education and Inequality
    • J13 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
    • O18 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure
    • R23 - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics - - Household Analysis - - - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population
    • R53 - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics - - Regional Government Analysis - - - Public Facility Location Analysis; Public Investment and Capital Stock

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