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The effectiveness of cash and cash plus interventions on livelihoods outcomes: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis

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  • Hirvonen, Kalle
  • Leight, Jessica
  • Zafar, Sarim

Abstract

Over the last 20 years, a burgeoning scholarly literature has analyzed the effects of cash transfer and cash plus interventions in a wide range of contexts and using a range of empirical designs. We conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the pooled effect of any cash or cash plus intervention on livelihoods-related outcomes (consumption, income and labor supply), ultimately compiling 305 different treatment estimates from 155 treatment arms in 104 studies (and in 43 countries). Using random effects and multilevel models, our findings suggest that cash transfer programming is associated with an increase of between $1 and $2 in monthly household consumption and income per $100 in cumulative transfers, an effect that persists for a period of roughly three years (inclusive of the period of program implementation); this effect is meaningfully larger (as much as $4 larger) for cash transfer programs that also include a cash plus livelihoods intervention. There are no significant effects observed on labor force participation. We also present a range of estimates capturing the longer-term (cumulative) effects of cash transfers on consumption under alternate assumptions.

Suggested Citation

  • Hirvonen, Kalle & Leight, Jessica & Zafar, Sarim, 2024. "The effectiveness of cash and cash plus interventions on livelihoods outcomes: Evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis," IFPRI discussion papers 2262, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    • Handle: RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2262
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    Cited by:

    1. Tatiana Orozco Garcia & Neil T. N. Ferguson, 2025. "Jobs and livelihoods programming for economic and social stability in fragile places: Evidence from Tunisia and Somalia," WIDER Working Paper Series wp-2025-93, World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER).
    2. Papineni, Sreelakshmi & Gonzalez Martinez, Paula Lorena & Goldstein, Markus & Friedman, Jed, 2025. "Cash Is Queen : Local Economy Effects of Cash Transfers to Women in West Africa," Policy Research Working Paper Series 11112, The World Bank.
    3. Hirvonen, Kalle & Machado, Elia & Simons, Andrew M., 2024. "Can social assistance reduce violent conflict and civil unrest? Evidence from a large-scale public works program in Ethiopia," CGIAR Initative Publications 163420, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    4. Leight, Jessica & Gentilini, Ugo, 2025. "Cash, food, and vouchers: An overview of the evidence," Other briefs 177186, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).
    5. Abay, Kibrom A. & Nigus, Halefom Yigzaw & Kahsay, Goytom Abraha & Taffesse, Alemayehu Seyoum, 2025. "Rebuilding trust in local leadership in conflict-affected settings: The impact of community-based cash transfers," IFPRI discussion papers 2370, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

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