Shifts in Agency and Classroom Power Dynamics in Online English as a Foreign Language Classrooms: A Literature Review

Classroom power dynamics refer to the distribution of authority and influence among teachers and students inside the classroom. Learner agency theory explores how students actively shape their own learning, coconstruct knowledge, and participate in decision-making within these power structures. The transition to online education changed the nature of classroom interaction by reducing face-to-face communication and nonverbal cues, elements essential for establishing strong teacher-student connections and for the real-time assessment of learning. Nevertheless, online platforms have also made participation easier by allowing students to engage from different locations and at their own pace, thereby promoting inclusivity and accommodating different learning styles. Research on agency and power dynamics in online language classrooms tends to focus on either learner agency, teacher agency, or classroom power dynamics in isolation. This review addresses this deficiency by illustrating the interrelatedness of these concepts. This paper is a review of both empirical and theoretical research on power dynamics and learner and teacher agency in online language classrooms. The review also highlights the interconnectedness between agency and classroom power through the lens of critical dynamic systems theory. This review concludes by recommending a holistic approach to stakeholders that empowers language learners through agentic engagement, sociocultural responsiveness, and pedagogical advancement in online educational contexts.