Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Bioavailable Trace Elements in Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter: Implications for Sustainable Air-Quality Management and Health Risk Assessment

Bioavailable fractions of particulate-bound trace elements are key determinants of inhalation toxicity, yet air-quality assessments typically rely on total metal concentrations, which may underestimate health risks. This study integrates the exchangeable (F1) and reducible (F2) fractions of trace elements in fine (PM 2.5 ) and coarse (PM 10 ) particulate matter with multi-criteria decision-making (TOPSIS) and similarity-based classification (Czekanowski’s method). Archival weekly-integrated samples from the summer season were collected at eight industrially influenced sites in southern Poland. Sequential extraction (F1–F2) and ICP-MS were applied to quantify concentrations of cadmium, cobalt, chromium, nickel, and lead in PM 2.5 and PM 10 . Aggregated hazard values were then derived with TOPSIS, and site similarity was explored using Czekanowski’s reordered distance matrices. Regulatory targets for cadmium and nickel, and the limit for lead in PM 10 were not exceeded, but F1/F2 profiles revealed pronounced site-to-site differences in potential mobility that were not evident from total concentrations. Rankings were consistent across size fractions, with site P 1 exhibiting the lowest hazard indices and P 8 the highest, while mid-rank sites formed reproducible similarity clusters. The proposed chemical-fractionation and multivariate framework provides a reproducible screening tool for multi-element exposure, complementing compliance checks and supporting prioritisation of sites for targeted investigation and environmental management. In the sustainability context, bioavailability-based indicators strengthen air-quality assessment by linking monitoring data with health-relevant and cost-effective management strategies, supporting efficient resource allocation and reducing exposure in vulnerable populations.