Impacts of Long-Term Treated Wastewater Irrigation and Rainfall on Soil Chemical and Microbial Indicators in Semi-Arid Calcareous Soils

Frequent and severe droughts intensify water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions, creating an urgent need for alternative water resources in agriculture. Treated wastewater (TWW) has emerged as a sustainable option; however, its long-term use may alter soil properties and pose risks if not carefully managed. This study tested the hypothesis that long-term TWW irrigation increases soil salinity, alters fertility, and affects microbial quality, with rainfall partially mitigating these effects. Soil samples (n = 96 at each time point) were collected from two calcareous soils in Jordan, silt loam (Mafraq) and silty clay loam (Ramtha), under four treatments (control and 2, 5, and 10 years of TWW irrigation) at three depths (0–30, 30–60, and 60–90 cm). Sampling was conducted at two intervals, before and after rainfall, to capture the seasonal variation. Soil indicators included the pH, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium (Na + ), chloride (Cl − ), calcium (Ca 2+ ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (TN), and microbial parameters (total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), and Escherichia coli ). Data were analyzed using a linear mixed-effects model with repeated measures, and significant differences were determined using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) test at p < 0.05. The results showed that rainfall reduced Na + by 70%, Cl − by 86%, EC by 73%, the ESP by 28%, and the SAR by 30%. Furthermore, the TC and FC concentrations were diminished by almost 96%. Moderate TWW irrigation (5 years) provided the most balanced outcomes across both sites. This study provides one of the few long-term field-based assessments of TWW irrigation in semi-arid calcareous soils of Jordan, underscoring its value in mitigating water scarcity while emphasizing the need for monitoring to ensure soil sustainability.