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Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Personal PM 2.5 -Bound Phthalates Exposure for Adults in Hong Kong

Author

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  • Jiayao Chen

    (Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
    Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, The University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China)

  • Tony J. Ward

    (School of Public and Community Health Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59801, USA)

  • Steven Sai Hang Ho

    (Division of Atmospheric Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512, USA)

  • Kin Fai Ho

    (The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China)

Abstract

We performed personal PM 2.5 monitoring involving 56 adult residents in Hong Kong. Additionally, paired personal and residential indoor fine particle (PM 2.5 ) samples were collected from 26 homes and from 3 fixed monitoring locations (i.e., outdoor samples). Six PM 2.5 -bound phthalate esters (PAEs)—including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)—were measured using a thermal desorption–gas chromatography/mass spectrometer method. Average ∑ 6 PAEs (i.e., summation of six PAE congeners) concentrations in personal PM 2.5 exposure (699.4 ng/m 3 ) were comparable with those in residential indoors (646.9 ng/m 3 ), and both were slightly lower than the outdoor levels. DEHP was the most abundant PAE congener (80.3%–85.0%) and found at the highest levels in different exposure categories, followed by BBP, DnBP, and DnOP. Strong correlations were observed between DEHP with DnBP ( r s : 0.81–0.90; p < 0.01), BBP ( r s : 0.81–0.90; p < 0.01), and DnOP ( r s : 0.87–0.93; p < 0.01) in each exposure category. However, no apparent intercorrelations were shown for PAE congeners. Higher indoor concentrations and a stronger correlation between DMP and DEP were found compared with outdoor concentrations. Principal component analysis affirmed heterogeneous distribution and notable variations in PAE sources across different exposure categories. The average daily intakes of ∑ 6 PAEs and DEHP via inhalation were 0.14–0.17 and 0.12–0.16 μg/kg-day for adults in Hong Kong. A time-weighted model was used to estimate PAE exposures incorporating residential indoor and outdoor exposure and time activities. The inhalation cancer risks attributable to measured and estimated personal exposure to DEHP exceeded the U.S. EPA’s benchmark (1 × 10 −6 ). The results provide critical information for mitigation strategies, suggesting that PAEs from both ambient and indoor sources should be considered when exploring the inhalation health risks of PAEs exposure.

Suggested Citation

  • Jiayao Chen & Tony J. Ward & Steven Sai Hang Ho & Kin Fai Ho, 2022. "Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Personal PM 2.5 -Bound Phthalates Exposure for Adults in Hong Kong," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(20), pages 1-21, October.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:19:y:2022:i:20:p:13425-:d:945252
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Brody, J.G. & Morello-Frosch, R. & Zota, A. & Brown, P. & Pérez, C. & Rudel, R.A., 2009. "Linking exposure assessment science with policy objectives for environmental justice and breast cancer advocacy: the northern California household exposure study," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 99(S3), pages 600-609.
    2. Ge Liu & Wei Cai & Huan Liu & Haihong Jiang & Yongyi Bi & Hong Wang, 2021. "The Association of Bisphenol A and Phthalates with Risk of Breast Cancer: A Meta-Analysis," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(5), pages 1-16, March.
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