IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jijerp/v19y2022i14p8610-d863223.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Bottled and Well Water Quality in a Small Central Appalachian Community: Household-Level Analysis of Enteric Pathogens, Inorganic Chemicals, and Health Outcomes in Rural Southwest Virginia

Author

Listed:
  • Alasdair Cohen

    (Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
    Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA)

  • Md Rasheduzzaman

    (Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA)

  • Amanda Darling

    (Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
    Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA)

  • Leigh-Anne Krometis

    (Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA)

  • Marc Edwards

    (Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA)

  • Teresa Brown

    (Department of Natural Sciences, University of Virginia’s College at Wise, Wise, VA 24293, USA)

  • Tahmina Ahmed

    (Department of Engineering Systems and Environment, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA)

  • Erin Wettstone

    (Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA)

  • Suporn Pholwat

    (Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA)

  • Mami Taniuchi

    (Department of Engineering Systems and Environment, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
    Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
    Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA)

  • Elizabeth T. Rogawski McQuade

    (Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
    Department of Epidemiology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA)

Abstract

Consumption of unsafe drinking water is associated with a substantial burden of disease globally. In the US, ~1.8 million people in rural areas lack reliable access to safe drinking water. Our objective was to characterize and assess household-level water sources, water quality, and associated health outcomes in Central Appalachia. We collected survey data and water samples (tap, source, and bottled water) from consenting households in a small rural community without utility-supplied water in southwest Virginia. Water samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters, total coliforms, E. coli , nitrate, sulfate, metals (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, lead), and 30+ enteric pathogens. Among the 69% ( n = 9) of households that participated, all had piped well water, though 67% ( n = 6) used bottled water as their primary drinking water source. Total coliforms were detected in water samples from 44.4% ( n = 4) of homes, E. coli in one home, and enteric pathogens ( Aeromonas , Campylobacter , Enterobacter ) in 33% ( n = 3) of homes. Tap water samples from 11% ( n = 1) of homes exceeded the EPA MCL for nitrate, and 33% ( n = 3) exceeded the EPA SMCL for iron. Among the 19 individuals residing in study households, reported diarrhea was 25% more likely in homes with measured E. coli and/or specific pathogens (risk ratio = 1.25, cluster-robust standard error = 1.64, p = 0.865). Although our sample size was small, our findings suggest that a considerable number of lower-income residents without utility-supplied water in rural areas of southwest Virginia may be exposed to microbiological and/or chemical contaminants in their water, and many, if not most, rely on bottled water as their primary source of drinking water.

Suggested Citation

  • Alasdair Cohen & Md Rasheduzzaman & Amanda Darling & Leigh-Anne Krometis & Marc Edwards & Teresa Brown & Tahmina Ahmed & Erin Wettstone & Suporn Pholwat & Mami Taniuchi & Elizabeth T. Rogawski McQuade, 2022. "Bottled and Well Water Quality in a Small Central Appalachian Community: Household-Level Analysis of Enteric Pathogens, Inorganic Chemicals, and Health Outcomes in Rural Southwest Virginia," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(14), pages 1-12, July.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:19:y:2022:i:14:p:8610-:d:863223
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8610/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/19/14/8610/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Peter J Hotez, 2014. "Neglected Parasitic Infections and Poverty in the United States," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 8(9), pages 1-5, September.
    2. Alasdair Cohen & Isha Ray, 2018. "The global risks of increasing reliance on bottled water," Nature Sustainability, Nature, vol. 1(7), pages 327-329, July.
    3. Peter Cummings, 2009. "Methods for estimating adjusted risk ratios," Stata Journal, StataCorp LP, vol. 9(2), pages 175-196, June.
    4. J. Tom Mueller & Stephen Gasteyer, 2021. "The widespread and unjust drinking water and clean water crisis in the United States," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 12(1), pages 1-8, December.
    5. Rachel D. Stelmach & Thomas Clasen, 2015. "Household Water Quantity and Health: A Systematic Review," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 12(6), pages 1-21, May.
    6. Peter J Hotez, 2008. "Neglected Infections of Poverty in the United States of America," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 2(6), pages 1-11, June.
    7. Cohen, Alasdair & Sullivan, Caroline A., 2010. "Water and poverty in rural China: Developing an instrument to assess the multiple dimensions of water and poverty," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(5), pages 999-1009, March.
    8. Ashley R Williams & Robert E S Bain & Michael B Fisher & Ryan Cronk & Emma R Kelly & Jamie Bartram, 2015. "A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Fecal Contamination and Inadequate Treatment of Packaged Water," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(10), pages 1-27, October.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Peter J Hotez & Cory Booker, 2020. "STOP: Study, Treat, Observe, and Prevent Neglected Diseases of Poverty Act," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 14(2), pages 1-3, February.
    2. Peter J Hotez, 2011. "America’s Most Distressed Areas and Their Neglected Infections: The United States Gulf Coast and the District of Columbia," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 5(3), pages 1-3, March.
    3. Changli Zhu & Zhongfa Zhou & Guoxuan Ma & Linjiang Yin, 2022. "Spatial differentiation of the impact of transport accessibility on the multidimensional poverty of rural households in karst mountain areas," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 24(3), pages 3863-3883, March.
    4. Peter J Hotez, 2012. "Engaging a Rising China through Neglected Tropical Diseases," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 6(11), pages 1-4, November.
    5. Peter J Hotez, 2009. "One World Health: Neglected Tropical Diseases in a Flat World," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 3(4), pages 1-3, April.
    6. Scheidel, Arnim, 2013. "Flows, funds and the complexity of deprivation: Using concepts from ecological economics for the study of poverty," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 28-36.
    7. Amani Babekir & Sayed Mostafa & Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi, 2021. "The Association of Toxoplasma gondii IgG and Cardiovascular Biomarkers," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(9), pages 1-16, May.
    8. Pasteau, Etienne & Zhu, Junyi, 2018. "Love and money with inheritance: Marital sorting by labor income and inherited wealth in the modern partnership," Discussion Papers 23/2018, Deutsche Bundesbank.
    9. Demetrios E. Tsesmelis & Nikolaos A. Skondras & Syed Yasir Ahmad Khan & Elpida Kolokytha & Christos A. Karavitis, 2020. "Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Index: Development and Application to Measure WASH Service Levels in European Humanitarian Camps," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 34(8), pages 2449-2470, June.
    10. Mrittika Basu & Satoshi Hoshino & Shizuka Hashimoto, 2016. "A pragmatic analysis of water supply and demand, and adaptive capacity in rural areas: development of Rural Water Insecurity Index," Natural Hazards: Journal of the International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, Springer;International Society for the Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Hazards, vol. 81(1), pages 447-466, March.
    11. Allaire, Benjamin T. & Raghavan, Ramesh & Brown, Derek S., 2016. "Morbid obesity and use of second generation antipsychotics among adolescents in foster care: Evidence from Medicaid," Children and Youth Services Review, Elsevier, vol. 67(C), pages 27-31.
    12. Patricia Frenz & Jay S. Kaufman & Carolina Nazzal & Gabriel Cavada & Francisco Cerecera & Nicolás Silva, 2017. "Mediation of the effect of childhood socioeconomic position by educational attainment on adult chronic disease in Chile," International Journal of Public Health, Springer;Swiss School of Public Health (SSPH+), vol. 62(9), pages 1007-1017, December.
    13. Aaron Farmer & Thomas Beltran & Young Sammy Choi, 2017. "Prevalence of Toxocara species infection in the U.S.: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2011-2014," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 11(7), pages 1-12, July.
    14. Hugues Sampasa-Kanyinga & Lydie Masengo & Hayley A. Hamilton & Jean-Philippe Chaput, 2020. "Energy Drink Consumption and Substance Use among Middle and High School Students," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(9), pages 1-12, April.
    15. Maria Paola Caria & Rino Bellocco & Maria Rosaria Galanti & Nicholas J. Horton, 2011. "The impact of different sources of body mass index assessment on smoking onset: An application of multiple-source information models," Stata Journal, StataCorp LP, vol. 11(3), pages 386-402, September.
    16. Rachel M Lee & Laura B Moore & Maria Elena Bottazzi & Peter J Hotez, 2014. "Toxocariasis in North America: A Systematic Review," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 8(8), pages 1-7, August.
    17. Danuta Grosbois & Ryan Plummer, 2015. "Problematizing Water Vulnerability Indices at a Local Level: a Critical Review and Proposed Solution," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 29(14), pages 5015-5035, November.
    18. Donna L Tyungu & David McCormick & Carla Lee Lau & Michael Chang & James R Murphy & Peter J Hotez & Rojelio Mejia & Henry Pollack, 2020. "Toxocara species environmental contamination of public spaces in New York City," PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Public Library of Science, vol. 14(5), pages 1-13, May.
    19. Parry, Luke & Radel, Claudia & Adamo, Susana B. & Clark, Nigel & Counterman, Miriam & Flores-Yeffal, Nadia & Pons, Diego & Romero-Lankao, Paty & Vargo, Jason, 2019. "The (in)visible health risks of climate change," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 241(C).
    20. Julie Wilk & Anna Jonsson, 2013. "From Water Poverty to Water Prosperity—A More Participatory Approach to Studying Local Water Resources Management," Water Resources Management: An International Journal, Published for the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), Springer;European Water Resources Association (EWRA), vol. 27(3), pages 695-713, February.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:19:y:2022:i:14:p:8610-:d:863223. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.