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Microbiological Health Risk Assessment of Water Conservation Strategies: A Case Study in Amsterdam

Author

Listed:
  • Agung Kusumawardhana

    (Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands)

  • Ljiljana Zlatanovic

    (Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands
    Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, Kattenburgerstraat 5, 1018 JA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
    Water Supply Company Noord-Holland PWN, Rijksweg 501, 1991 AS Velserbroek, The Netherlands)

  • Arne Bosch

    (Waternet, P.O. Box 94370, 1090 GJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

  • Jan Peter van der Hoek

    (Department of Water Management, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5, 2600 AA Delft, The Netherlands
    Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions, Kattenburgerstraat 5, 1018 JA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
    Waternet, P.O. Box 94370, 1090 GJ Amsterdam, The Netherlands)

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the health risks that may arise from the implementation of greywater reuse and rainwater harvesting for household use, especially for toilet flushing. In addition, the risk of cross connections between these systems and the drinking water system was considered. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is a method that uses mathematical modelling to estimate the risk of infection when exposure to pathogens happens and was used in this study to assess the health risks. The results showed that using rainwater without prior treatment for toilet flushing poses an annual infection risk from L. pneumophila at 0.64 per-person-per-year (pppy) which exceeds the Dutch standard of 10 −4 pppy. The use of untreated greywater showed a risk that is below the standard. However, treatment is recommended due to the ability of P. aeruginosa to grow in the reuse system. Moreover, showering and drinking with cross-connected water has a high annual infection risk that exceeds the standard due to contact with Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli O157:H7. Several measures can be implemented to mitigate the risks such as treating the greywater and rainwater with a minimum of 5-log removal, closing the toilet lid while flushing, good design of greywater and rainwater collection systems, and rigorous plumbing installation procedures.

Suggested Citation

  • Agung Kusumawardhana & Ljiljana Zlatanovic & Arne Bosch & Jan Peter van der Hoek, 2021. "Microbiological Health Risk Assessment of Water Conservation Strategies: A Case Study in Amsterdam," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(5), pages 1-17, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:18:y:2021:i:5:p:2595-:d:511006
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. van der Hoek, Jan Peter & de Fooij, Heleen & Struker, André, 2016. "Wastewater as a resource: Strategies to recover resources from Amsterdam’s wastewater," Resources, Conservation & Recycling, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 53-64.
    2. T. W. Armstrong & C. N. Haas, 2007. "A Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Model for Legionnaires' Disease: Animal Model Selection and Dose‐Response Modeling," Risk Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 27(6), pages 1581-1596, December.
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