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Evaluating Soil Degradation in Agricultural Soil with Ground-Penetrating Radar: A Systematic Review of Applications and Challenges

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  • Filipe Adão

    (Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
    Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
    Engineering Department, School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal)

  • Luís Pádua

    (Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
    Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
    Engineering Department, School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal)

  • Joaquim J. Sousa

    (Engineering Department, School of Science and Technology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal
    Centre for Robotics in Industry and Intelligent Systems (CRIIS), Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science (INESC TEC), 4200-465 Porto, Portugal)

Abstract

Soil degradation is a critical challenge to global agricultural sustainability, driven by intensive land use, unsustainable farming practices, and climate change. Conventional soil monitoring techniques often rely on invasive sampling methods, which can be labor-intensive, disruptive, and limited in spatial coverage. In contrast, non-invasive geophysical techniques, particularly ground-penetrating radar, have gained attention as tools for assessing soil properties. However, an assessment of ground-penetrating radar’s applications in agricultural soil research—particularly for detecting soil structural changes related to degradation—remains undetermined. To address this issue, a systematic literature review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines. A search was conducted across Scopus and Web of Science databases, as well as relevant review articles and study reference lists, up to 31 December 2024. This process resulted in 86 potentially relevant studies, of which 24 met the eligibility criteria and were included in the final review. The analysis revealed that the ground-penetrating radar allows the detection of structural changes associated with tillage practices and heavy machinery traffic in agricultural lands, namely topsoil disintegration and soil compaction, both of which are important indicators of soil degradation. These variations are reflected in changes in electrical permittivity and reflectivity, particularly above the tillage horizon. These shifts are associated with lower soil water content, increased soil homogeneity, and heightened wave reflectivity at the upper boundary of compacted soil. The latter is linked to density contrasts and waterlogging above this layer. Additionally, ground-penetrating radar has demonstrated its potential in mapping alterations in electrical permittivity related to preferential water flow pathways, detecting shifts in soil organic carbon distribution, identifying disruptions in root systems due to tillage, and assessing soil conditions potentially affected by excessive fertilization in iron oxide-rich soils. Future research should focus on refining methodologies to improve the ground-penetrating radar’s ability to quantify soil degradation processes with greater accuracy. In particular, there is a need for standardized experimental protocols to evaluate the effects of monocultures on soil fertility, assess the impact of excessive fertilization effects on soil acidity, and integrate ground-penetrating radar with complementary geophysical and remote sensing techniques for a holistic approach to soil health monitoring.

Suggested Citation

  • Filipe Adão & Luís Pádua & Joaquim J. Sousa, 2025. "Evaluating Soil Degradation in Agricultural Soil with Ground-Penetrating Radar: A Systematic Review of Applications and Challenges," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-40, April.
  • Handle: RePEc:gam:jagris:v:15:y:2025:i:8:p:852-:d:1634994
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Daniela De Benedetto & Emanuele Barca & Mirko Castellini & Stefano Popolizio & Giovanni Lacolla & Anna Maria Stellacci, 2022. "Prediction of Soil Organic Carbon at Field Scale by Regression Kriging and Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines Using Geophysical Covariates," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(3), pages 1-18, March.
    2. Niki Rust & Ole Erik Lunder & Sara Iversen & Steven Vella & Elizabeth A. Oughton & Tor Arvid Breland & Jayne H. Glass & Carly M. Maynard & Rob McMorran & Mark S. Reed, 2022. "Perceived Causes and Solutions to Soil Degradation in the UK and Norway," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(1), pages 1-21, January.
    3. Hongdan Fu & Guoxian Zhang & Fan Zhang & Zhouping Sun & Guoming Geng & Tianlai Li, 2017. "Effects of Continuous Tomato Monoculture on Soil Microbial Properties and Enzyme Activities in a Solar Greenhouse," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(2), pages 1-14, February.
    4. Aadhityaa Mohanavelu & Sujay Raghavendra Naganna & Nadhir Al-Ansari, 2021. "Irrigation Induced Salinity and Sodicity Hazards on Soil and Groundwater: An Overview of Its Causes, Impacts and Mitigation Strategies," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 11(10), pages 1-17, October.
    5. Carmine Massarelli & Claudia Campanale & Vito Felice Uricchio, 2021. "Ground Penetrating Radar as a Functional Tool to Outline the Presence of Buried Waste: A Case Study in South Italy," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(7), pages 1-18, March.
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