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Carrots and Sticks: Pay, Supervision and Turnover

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Jonathan S. Leonard

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Abstract

Large and persistent differences across industries in wages paid for given occupations have commonly been observed. Recently, the efficiency wage model (EWM) has been advanced as an explanation for these wage differentials. The shirking version of the EWM assumes a trade-off between self-supervision and external supervision. The turnover version assumes turnover is costly to the firm. Variation across firms in the cost of monitoring/shirking or turnover then are hypothesized to account for wage variation across firms for homogeneous workers. This paper presents empirical evidence of the trade-off of wage premiums for supervisory intensity and turnover. A new sample of 200 firms in one sector in one state in 1982 is analyzed. Little evidence is found to support either version of EWM. The substantial variation in wages for narrowly defined occupations across firms remains largely unexplained.

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Paper provided by National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc in its series NBER Working Papers with number 2176.

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Date of creation: Feb 1987
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Publication status: published as Leonard, Jonathan S. "Carrots and Sticks: Pay, Supervision and Turnover," Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 5, No. 4, Part 2, October 1987, pp. 5136-5 152.
Handle: RePEc:nbr:nberwo:2176

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  1. Katharine G. Abraham & Henry S. Farber, 1986. "Job Duration, Seniority and Earnings," Working papers 407, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Department of Economics.
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  1. David Levine, 1991. "You Get What You Pay For: Tests of Efficency Wage Theories in the United States and Japan," Institute for Research on Labor and Employment, Working Paper Series 1054, Institute of Industrial Relations, UC Berkeley. [Downloadable!]
  2. Derek Neal & Sherwin Rosen, 1998. "Theories of the Distribution of Labor Earnings," NBER Working Papers 6378, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  3. Dennis Dittrich & Martin G. Kocher, 2006. "Monitoring and Pay: An Experiment on Employee Performance under Endogenous Supervision," Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers 06-098/1, Tinbergen Institute. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  4. Harry J. Holzer, 1990. "Wages, Employer Costs, and Employee Performance in the Firm," NBER Working Papers 2830, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  5. Andrea Ichino & Giovanni Maggi, 1999. "Work Environment and Individual Background: Explaining Regional Shirking Differentials in a Large Italian Firm," NBER Working Papers 7415, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  6. Fali Huang & Peter Cappelli, 2006. "Employee Screening: Theory and Evidence," NBER Working Papers 12071, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  7. Lundborg, Per, 2005. "Individual Wage Setting, Efficiency Wages and Productivity in Sweden," Working Paper Series 205, Trade Union Institute for Economic Research. [Downloadable!]
  8. Alan B. Krueger, 1990. "Ownership, Agency and Wages: An Examination in the Fast Food Industry," NBER Working Papers 3334, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  9. Andreas P. Georgiadis, 2006. "Is there a Wage-Supervision Trade-Off? Efficiency Wages Evidence From the 1990 British Workplace Industrial Relations Survey," The Centre for Market and Public Organisation 06/152, Department of Economics, University of Bristol, UK. [Downloadable!]
  10. Joseph A. Ritter & Lowell J. Taylor, 1997. "Economic models of employee motivation," Review, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, issue Sep, pages 3-21. [Downloadable!]
  11. Robert A. J. Dur & Amihai Glazer, 2005. "The Desire for Impact," CESifo Working Paper Series CESifo Working Paper No. , CESifo GmbH. [Downloadable!]
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  12. William T. Dickens & Lawrence F. Katz, 1987. "Inter-Industry Wage Differences and Theories of Wage Determination," NBER Working Papers 2271, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  13. Canice Prendergast, 1996. "What Happens Within Firms? A Survey of Empirical Evidence on Compensation Policies," NBER Working Papers 5802, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  14. Seref Saygili, 1998. "Is the Efficiency Wage Hypothesis Valid for Developing Countries? Evidence from the Turkish Cement Industry," Studies in Economics 9810, Department of Economics, University of Kent. [Downloadable!]
  15. David Levine, 1989. "Cohesiveness, Productivity, and Wage Dispersion," Institute for Research on Labor and Employment, Working Paper Series 1042, Institute of Industrial Relations, UC Berkeley. [Downloadable!]
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  16. Dittrich, Dennis & Kocher, Martin, 2006. "Monitoring and Pay: An Experiment on Employee under Endogenous Supervision," CEPR Discussion Papers 5962, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  17. Bradley Ewing & Phanindra Wunnava, 2002. "The Trade-Off Between Supervision Cost and Performance-Based Pay: Does it Matter?," Middlebury College Working Paper Series 0232, Middlebury College, Department of Economics. [Downloadable!]
  18. Sarah Brown & Fathi Fakhfakh & John G. Sessions, . "Wages, Supervision and Sharing," Discussion Papers in Public Sector Economics 00/4, Department of Economics, University of Leicester. [Downloadable!]
  19. Josse Delfgaauw, 2005. "Where To Go? Workers' Reasons to Quit and Intra- versus Interindustry Job Mobility," Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers 05-027/1, Tinbergen Institute, revised 08 Aug 2005. [Downloadable!]
  20. Joseph A. Ritter & Lowell J. Taylor, 1997. "Economic models of employee motivation," Working Papers 1997-006, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. [Downloadable!]
  21. Sarah Brown & John G. Sessions, 2002. "Wages, Supervision and Sharing:An Analysis of the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey," Discussion Papers in Economics 02/7, Department of Economics, University of Leicester. [Downloadable!]
  22. Garcia-Prado, Ariadna, 2005. "Sweetening the carrot : motivating public physicians for better performance," Policy Research Working Paper Series 3772, The World Bank. [Downloadable!]
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