IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v14y2022i10p6288-d820895.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Corruption and FDI in Brazil: Contesting the “Sand” or “Grease” Hypotheses

Author

Listed:
  • Vanessa da Silva Mariotto Onody

    (Department of Production Engineering (DEP), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil)

  • Ana Catarina Gandra de Carvalho

    (Department of Production Engineering (DEP), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil)

  • Eduardo Polloni-Silva

    (Department of Production Engineering (DEP), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil)

  • Guilherme Augusto Roiz

    (Department of Production Engineering, University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos 05508-270l, SP, Brazil)

  • Enzo Barberio Mariano

    (Department of Production Engineering, School of Engineering of Bauru, Campus Bauru, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru 14800-903, SP, Brazil)

  • Daisy Aparecida Nascimento Rebelatto

    (Department of Production Engineering, University of São Paulo (USP), São Carlos 05508-270l, SP, Brazil)

  • Herick Fernando Moralles

    (Department of Production Engineering (DEP), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil)

Abstract

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is seen as a significant driver of economic growth and a potential ally in the struggle against poverty and inequality, making emerging countries focus on attracting this type of investment. Thus, understanding factors that impact the concentration of regional FDI is essential to verifying which characteristics encourage or deter foreign investment. Likewise, the literature has explored institutional factors such as corruption as determining factors for the concentration of FDI. Within this framework, this study aims to empirically examine the sensitivity of multinational enterprises (MNEs) to corruption. Few studies have been carried out on this subject, mainly in Latin American economies. We employ a unique Brazilian municipality-level FDI database to investigate whether corruption hinders (i.e., corruption acting as “sand”) or promotes the concentration of foreign investment (i.e., corruption acting like “grease”). Additionally, we believe that analyzing different economic sectors is essential to deepening the knowledge about the impacts of corruption on FDI. Our results show that corruption acts as “grease” for both overall FDI and at the level of individual sectors. Finally, when taking a non-linear approach, our findings show that corruption acts as grease for FDI only in regions with intermediate (medium–low) levels of corruption.

Suggested Citation

  • Vanessa da Silva Mariotto Onody & Ana Catarina Gandra de Carvalho & Eduardo Polloni-Silva & Guilherme Augusto Roiz & Enzo Barberio Mariano & Daisy Aparecida Nascimento Rebelatto & Herick Fernando Mora, 2022. "Corruption and FDI in Brazil: Contesting the “Sand” or “Grease” Hypotheses," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(10), pages 1-18, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:14:y:2022:i:10:p:6288-:d:820895
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/10/6288/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/10/6288/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Yerkezhan Akhmetzaki & Bulat Mukhamediyev, 2017. "Fdi Determinants In The Eurasian Economic Union Countries And Eurasian Economic Integration Effect On Fdi Inflows," Economy of region, Centre for Economic Security, Institute of Economics of Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, vol. 1(3), pages 959-970.
    2. Stelios Zyglidopoulos & Peter Fleming & Sandra Rothenberg, 2009. "Rationalization, Overcompensation and the Escalation of Corruption in Organizations," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 84(1), pages 65-73, January.
    3. Jakob Svensson, 2003. "Who Must Pay Bribes and How Much? Evidence from a Cross Section of Firms," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 118(1), pages 207-230.
    4. Jakob Svensson, 2005. "Eight Questions about Corruption," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 19(3), pages 19-42, Summer.
    5. Kevin Zheng Zhou & Dean Xu, 2012. "How foreign firms curtail local supplier opportunism in China: Detailed contracts, centralized control, and relational governance," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 43(7), pages 677-692, September.
    6. Slesman, Ly & Abubakar, Yazid Abdullahi & Mitra, Jay, 2021. "Foreign direct investment and entrepreneurship: Does the role of institutions matter?," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 30(4).
    7. Beck, Nathaniel & Katz, Jonathan N., 1995. "What To Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series Cross-Section Data," American Political Science Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 89(3), pages 634-647, September.
    8. John C. Driscoll & Aart C. Kraay, 1998. "Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimation With Spatially Dependent Panel Data," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 80(4), pages 549-560, November.
    9. Bruce E. Hansen, 2000. "Sample Splitting and Threshold Estimation," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 68(3), pages 575-604, May.
    10. M. T. Magombeyi & N. M. Odhiambo, 2018. "FDI inflows and poverty reduction in Botswana: an empirical investigation," Cogent Economics & Finance, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 6(1), pages 1480302-148, January.
    11. Barassi, Marco R. & Zhou, Ying, 2012. "The effect of corruption on FDI: A parametric and non-parametric analysis," European Journal of Political Economy, Elsevier, vol. 28(3), pages 302-312.
    12. Aziz N. Berdiev & James W. Saunoris, 2018. "Corruption and Entrepreneurship: Cross‐Country Evidence from Formal and Informal Sectors," Southern Economic Journal, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 84(3), pages 831-848, January.
    13. Matthew Cole & Robert Elliott & Jing Zhang, 2009. "Corruption, Governance and FDI Location in China: A Province-Level Analysis," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 45(9), pages 1494-1512.
    14. Michael A Sartor & Paul W Beamish, 2018. "Host market government corruption and the equity-based foreign entry strategies of multinational enterprises," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 49(3), pages 346-370, April.
    15. Nathapornpan Piyaareekul Uttama, 2015. "Foreign Direct Investment and the Poverty Reduction Nexus in Southeast Asia," Economic Studies in Inequality, Social Exclusion, and Well-Being, in: Almas Heshmati & Esfandiar Maasoumi & Guanghua Wan (ed.), Poverty Reduction Policies and Practices in Developing Asia, edition 127, chapter 0, pages 281-298, Springer.
    16. Damto Basha Chewaka & Changzheng Zhang, 2021. "Multinational Firm Growth and Sustainability Responses to Dynamics of Business Regulations in Host Market," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(24), pages 1-15, December.
    17. Fredriksson, Per G. & List, John A. & Millimet, Daniel L., 2003. "Bureaucratic corruption, environmental policy and inbound US FDI: theory and evidence," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(7-8), pages 1407-1430, August.
    18. Xingwang Qian & Jesus Sandoval-Hernandez, 2016. "Corruption Distance and Foreign Direct Investment," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 52(2), pages 400-419, February.
    19. Stelios Zyglidopoulos & Peter Fleming, 2008. "Ethical Distance in Corrupt Firms: How Do Innocent Bystanders Become Guilty Perpetrators?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 78(1), pages 265-274, March.
    20. Samina Sabir & Anum Rafique & Kamran Abbas, 2019. "Institutions and FDI: evidence from developed and developing countries," Financial Innovation, Springer;Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, vol. 5(1), pages 1-20, December.
    21. William P. Wan, 2005. "Country Resource Environments, Firm Capabilities, and Corporate Diversification Strategies," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(1), pages 161-182, January.
    22. Klaus Uhlenbruck & Peter Rodriguez & Jonathan Doh & Lorraine Eden, 2006. "The Impact of Corruption on Entry Strategy: Evidence from Telecommunication Projects in Emerging Economies," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 17(3), pages 402-414, June.
    23. Wang, Danny T. & Gu, Flora F. & Tse, David K. & Yim, Chi Kin (Bennett), 2013. "When does FDI matter? The roles of local institutions and ethnic origins of FDI," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 22(2), pages 450-465.
    24. Mohamed Bouzahzah, 2022. "Pollution Haven Hypothesis in Africa: Does the Quality of Institutions Matter?," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 12(1), pages 101-109.
    25. Alvaro Cuervo-Cazurra, 2006. "Who cares about corruption?," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 37(6), pages 807-822, November.
    26. Dhrifi, Abdelhafidh & Jaziri, Raouf & Alnahdi, Saleh, 2020. "Does foreign direct investment and environmental degradation matter for poverty? Evidence from developing countries," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 52(C), pages 13-21.
    27. Micheline Goedhuys & Pierre Mohnen & Tamer Taha, 2016. "Corruption, innovation and firm growth: firm-level evidence from Egypt and Tunisia," Eurasian Business Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 6(3), pages 299-322, December.
    28. Delgado, Michael S. & McCloud, Nadine & Kumbhakar, Subal C., 2014. "A generalized empirical model of corruption, foreign direct investment, and growth," Journal of Macroeconomics, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 298-316.
    29. Driffield, Nigel & Jones, Chris & Kim, Jae-Yeon & Temouri, Yama, 2021. "FDI motives and the use of tax havens: Evidence from South Korea," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 644-662.
    30. Janice Tieguhong Puatwoe & Serge Mandiefe Piabuo, 2017. "Financial sector development and economic growth: evidence from Cameroon," Financial Innovation, Springer;Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, vol. 3(1), pages 1-18, December.
    31. Ayesha Ashraf & Dierk Herzer & Peter Nunnenkamp, 2016. "The Effects of Greenfield FDI and Cross-border M&As on Total Factor Productivity," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 39(11), pages 1728-1755, November.
    32. Croissant, Yves & Millo, Giovanni, 2008. "Panel Data Econometrics in R: The plm Package," Journal of Statistical Software, Foundation for Open Access Statistics, vol. 27(i02).
    33. Hong Hiep Hoang & Cong Minh Huynh & Nguyen Minh Huy Duong & Ngoc Hoe Chau, 2022. "Determinants of foreign direct investment in Southern Central Coast of Vietnam: a spatial econometric analysis," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 55(1), pages 285-310, February.
    34. Shang-Jin Wei, 2000. "How Taxing is Corruption on International Investors?," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 82(1), pages 1-11, February.
    35. Abdelaziz Hakimi & Helmi Hamdi, 2017. "Does corruption limit FDI and economic growth? Evidence from MENA countries," International Journal of Emerging Markets, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 12(3), pages 550-571, July.
    36. Jeffrey M Wooldridge, 2010. "Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 2, volume 1, number 0262232588, December.
    37. Moralles, Herick Fernando & Moreno, Rosina, 2020. "FDI productivity spillovers and absorptive capacity in Brazilian firms: A threshold regression analysis," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 257-272.
    38. Sunde, Tafirenyika, 2017. "Foreign direct investment, exports and economic growth: ADRL and causality analysis for South Africa," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 434-444.
    39. Lakshmi, Geeta & Saha, Shrabani & Bhattarai, Keshab, 2021. "Does corruption matter for stock markets? The role of heterogeneous institutions," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 94(C), pages 386-400.
    40. Eduardo Polloni‐Silva & Herick Fernando Moralles & Daisy Aparecida do Nascimento Rebelatto & Dominik Hartmann, 2021. "Are foreign companies a blessing or a curse for local development in Brazil? It depends on the home country and host region's institutions," Growth and Change, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 52(2), pages 933-962, June.
    41. Martin, Kelly D. & Johnson, Jean L. & Cullen, John B., 2009. "Organizational Change, Normative Control Deinstitutionalization, and Corruption," Business Ethics Quarterly, Cambridge University Press, vol. 19(1), pages 105-130, January.
    42. Croissant, Yves & Millo, Giovanni, 2008. "Panel Data Econometrics in R: The plm Package," Journal of Statistical Software, Foundation for Open Access Statistics, vol. 27(i02).
    43. Heba E. Helmy, 2013. "The impact of corruption on FDI: is MENA an exception?," International Review of Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 27(4), pages 491-514, July.
    44. Dhahri, Sabrine & Omri, Anis, 2020. "Foreign capital towards SDGs 1 & 2—Ending Poverty and hunger: The role of agricultural production," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 208-221.
    45. Tan,Shawn Weiming & Tran,Trang Thu & Tan,Shawn Weiming & Tran,Trang Thu, 2017. "The effect of local governance on firm productivity and resource allocation : evidence from Vietnam," Policy Research Working Paper Series 8118, The World Bank.
    46. Sharofiddin Ashurov & Anwar Hasan Abdullah Othman & Romzie Bin Rosman & Razali Bin Haron, 2020. "The determinants of foreign direct investment in Central Asian region: A case study of Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (A quantitative analysis using GMM)," Russian Journal of Economics, ARPHA Platform, vol. 6(2), pages 162-176, June.
    47. Yao‐Yu Chih & Ruby P. Kishan & Andrew Ojede, 2022. "Be good to thy neighbours: A spatial analysis of foreign direct investment and economic growth in sub‐Saharan Africa," The World Economy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 45(3), pages 657-701, March.
    48. Vita, Giuseppe Di, 2021. "Political corruption and legislative complexity: Two sides of same coin?," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 57(C), pages 136-147.
    49. Fisman, Raymond & Svensson, Jakob, 2007. "Are corruption and taxation really harmful to growth? Firm level evidence," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 83(1), pages 63-75, May.
    50. Yongqiang Gao, 2010. "Mimetic isomorphism, market competition, perceived benefit and bribery of firms in transitional China," Australian Journal of Management, Australian School of Business, vol. 35(2), pages 203-222, August.
    51. Klaus E. Meyer & Hung Vo Nguyen, 2005. "Foreign Investment Strategies and Sub‐national Institutions in Emerging Markets: Evidence from Vietnam," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(1), pages 63-93, January.
    52. Pranab Bardhan, 1997. "Corruption and Development: A Review of Issues," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 35(3), pages 1320-1346, September.
    53. Lee, Jung Wan, 2013. "The contribution of foreign direct investment to clean energy use, carbon emissions and economic growth," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 483-489.
    54. Ketteni, Elena & Kottaridi, Constantina, 2019. "The impact of regulations on the FDI-growth nexus within the institution-based view: A nonlinear specification with varying coefficients," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 28(3), pages 415-427.
    55. Razzaq, Asif & An, Hui & Delpachitra, Sarath, 2021. "Does technology gap increase FDI spillovers on productivity growth? Evidence from Chinese outward FDI in Belt and Road host countries," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 172(C).
    56. Roberto Martin N. Galang, 2012. "Victim or Victimizer: Firm Responses to Government Corruption," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 49(2), pages 429-462, March.
    57. Mr. Vito Tanzi & Mr. Hamid R Davoodi, 1997. "Corruption, Public Investment, and Growth," IMF Working Papers 1997/139, International Monetary Fund.
    58. Ritva Reinikka & Jakob Svensson, 2005. "Fighting Corruption to Improve Schooling: Evidence from a Newspaper Campaign in Uganda," Journal of the European Economic Association, MIT Press, vol. 3(2-3), pages 259-267, 04/05.
    59. Izzet Sidki Darendeli & T L Hill, 2016. "Uncovering the complex relationships between political risk and MNE firm legitimacy: Insights from Libya," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 47(1), pages 68-92, January.
    60. Manuel Arellano & Stephen Bond, 1991. "Some Tests of Specification for Panel Data: Monte Carlo Evidence and an Application to Employment Equations," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 58(2), pages 277-297.
    61. Elkhan Richard Sadik-Zada & Wilhelm L wenstein & Mattia Ferrari, 2018. "Privatization and the Role of Sub-National Governments in the Latin American Power Sector: A Plea for Less Subsidiarity?," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 8(1), pages 95-103.
    62. Manmohan Agarwal & Pragya Atri & Srikanta Kundu, 2017. "Foreign Direct Investment and Poverty Reduction," South Asia Economic Journal, Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, vol. 18(2), pages 135-157, September.
    63. Habiyaremye, Alexis & Raymond, Wladimir, 2013. "Transnational corruption and innovation in transition economies," MERIT Working Papers 2013-050, United Nations University - Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (MERIT).
    64. Eduardo Polloni-Silva & Guilherme Augusto Roiz & Enzo Barberio Mariano & Herick Fernando Moralles & Daisy Aparecida Nascimento Rebelatto, 2022. "The Environmental Cost of Attracting FDI: An Empirical Investigation in Brazil," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(8), pages 1-14, April.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Roberta Troisi & Annamaria Nese & Rocío Blanco-Gregory & Monica Anna Giovanniello, 2023. "The Effects of Corruption and Innovation on Sustainability: A Firm-Level Analysis," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-15, January.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Romero-Martínez, Ana M. & García-Muiña, Fernando E., 2021. "Digitalization level, corruptive practices, and location choice in the hotel industry," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 136(C), pages 176-185.
    2. Jan Hanousek & Anastasiya Shamshur & Jan Svejnar & Jiri Tresl, 2021. "Corruption level and uncertainty, FDI and domestic investment," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 52(9), pages 1750-1774, December.
    3. Eduardo Polloni‐Silva & Herick Fernando Moralles & Daisy Aparecida do Nascimento Rebelatto & Dominik Hartmann, 2021. "Are foreign companies a blessing or a curse for local development in Brazil? It depends on the home country and host region's institutions," Growth and Change, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 52(2), pages 933-962, June.
    4. Kouznetsov, Alex & Kim, Sarah & Wright, Chris, 2019. "An audit of received international business corruption literature for logic, consistency, completeness of coverage," Journal of International Management, Elsevier, vol. 25(4).
    5. Yan-Leung Cheung & P. Raghavendra Rau & Aris Stouraitis, 2021. "What Determines the Return to Bribery? Evidence from Corruption Cases Worldwide," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 67(10), pages 6235-6265, October.
    6. Mai Chi Vu, 2021. "Tensions and Struggles in Tackling Bribery at the Firm Level: Perspectives from Buddhist-Enacted Organizational Leaders," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 168(3), pages 517-537, January.
    7. Cuervo-Cazurra, Alvaro, 2016. "Corruption in international business," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 35-49.
    8. Yan Leung Cheung & P. Raghavendra Rau & Aris Stouraitis, 2012. "How much do firms pay as bribes and what benefits do they get? Evidence from corruption cases worldwide," NBER Working Papers 17981, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    9. Wu, Tao & Delios, Andrew & Chen, Zhaowei & Wang, Xin, 2023. "Rethinking corruption in international business: An empirical review," Journal of World Business, Elsevier, vol. 58(2).
    10. Hanousek, Jan & Shamshur, Anastasiya & Tresl, Jiri, 2019. "Firm efficiency, foreign ownership and CEO gender in corrupt environments," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 344-360.
    11. Ștefan Cristian Gherghina & Liliana Nicoleta Simionescu & Oana Simona Hudea, 2019. "Exploring Foreign Direct Investment–Economic Growth Nexus—Empirical Evidence from Central and Eastern European Countries," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(19), pages 1-33, September.
    12. Humna Ahsan & Keith Blackburn, 2015. "Human capital and income distribution in a model of corruption," Centre for Growth and Business Cycle Research Discussion Paper Series 208, Economics, The University of Manchester.
    13. Krisztina Kis-Katos & Günther G. Schulze, 2013. "Corruption in Southeast Asia: a survey of recent research," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, The Crawford School, The Australian National University, vol. 27(1), pages 79-109, May.
    14. Shi Wang & Hua Wang & Qian Sun, 2020. "The Impact of Foreign Direct Investment on Environmental Pollution in China: Corruption Matters," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(18), pages 1-20, September.
    15. Nirosha Wellalage & Sujani Thrikawala, 2021. "Does bribery sand or grease the wheels of firm level innovation: evidence from Latin American countries," Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Springer, vol. 31(3), pages 891-929, July.
    16. Anselm Komla Abotsi & Tongyai Iyavarakul, 2015. "Tolerable Level of Corruption for Foreign Direct Investment in Africa," Contemporary Economics, University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw., vol. 9(3), September.
    17. Joshua Hall & John Levendis & Alexandre R. Scarcioffolo, 2020. "The Efficient Corruption Hypothesis and the Dynamics Between Economic Freedom, Corruption, and National Income," Journal of Developing Areas, Tennessee State University, College of Business, vol. 54(3), pages 161-175, July-Sept.
    18. Yu Yan & Shusen Qi, 2021. "I Know What I Need: Optimization of Bribery," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 174(2), pages 311-332, November.
    19. Eduardo Polloni-Silva & Diogo Ferraz & Flávia de Castro Camioto & Daisy Aparecida do Nascimento Rebelatto & Herick Fernando Moralles, 2021. "Environmental Kuznets Curve and the Pollution-Halo/Haven Hypotheses: An Investigation in Brazilian Municipalities," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(8), pages 1-19, April.
    20. Kouramoudou Kéïta & Hannu Laurila, 2021. "Corruption and Tax Burden: What Is the Joint Effect on Total Factor Productivity?," Economies, MDPI, vol. 9(1), pages 1-16, March.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:14:y:2022:i:10:p:6288-:d:820895. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.