IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/ags/aaae19/295717.html
   My bibliography  Save this paper

Contract Farming and Rural Transformation: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin

Author

Listed:
  • Arouna, Aminou
  • Michler, Jeffrey D.
  • Lokossou, Jourdain C.

Abstract

Contract farming has emerged as a popular mechanism to encourage vertical coordination in developing country agriculture. Yet, there is a lack of consensus on its ability to spur structural transformation in rural economies. We present results from a field experiment on contract farming in a developing country. While all contracts have positive effects on welfare and productivity measures, we find that the simplest contract has impacts nearly as large as contracts with additional attributes. This suggests that once price risk is resolved through the offer of a fixed-price contract, farmers are able to address other constraints on their own.
(This abstract was borrowed from another version of this item.)

Suggested Citation

  • Arouna, Aminou & Michler, Jeffrey D. & Lokossou, Jourdain C., 2019. "Contract Farming and Rural Transformation: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin," 2019 Sixth International Conference, September 23-26, 2019, Abuja, Nigeria 295717, African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE).
    • Handle: RePEc:ags:aaae19:295717
    DOI: 10.22004/ag.econ.295717
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/295717/files/130.%20Contract%20farming%20in%20Benin.pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.22004/ag.econ.295717?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Maertens, Miet & Vande Velde, Katrien, 2017. "Contract-farming in Staple Food Chains: The Case of Rice in Benin," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 73-87.
    2. James Heckman & Seong Hyeok Moon & Rodrigo Pinto & Peter Savelyev & Adam Yavitz, 2010. "Analyzing social experiments as implemented: A reexamination of the evidence from the HighScope Perry Preschool Program," Quantitative Economics, Econometric Society, vol. 1(1), pages 1-46, July.
    3. Joseph E. Stiglitz, 1974. "Incentives and Risk Sharing in Sharecropping," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 41(2), pages 219-255.
    4. Anderson, Michael L., 2008. "Multiple Inference and Gender Differences in the Effects of Early Intervention: A Reevaluation of the Abecedarian, Perry Preschool, and Early Training Projects," Journal of the American Statistical Association, American Statistical Association, vol. 103(484), pages 1481-1495.
    5. John A. List & Azeem M. Shaikh & Yang Xu, 2019. "Multiple hypothesis testing in experimental economics," Experimental Economics, Springer;Economic Science Association, vol. 22(4), pages 773-793, December.
    6. repec:oup:apecpp:v:40:y:2018:i:3:p:379-401. is not listed on IDEAS
    7. Hope C. Michelson, 2013. "Small Farmers, NGOs, and a Walmart World: Welfare Effects of Supermarkets Operating in Nicaragua," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 95(3), pages 628-649.
    8. Soullier, Guillaume & Moustier, Paule, 2018. "Impacts of contract farming in domestic grain chains on farmer income and food insecurity. Contrasted evidence from Senegal," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 79(C), pages 179-198.
    9. James Heckman & Seong Hyeok Moon & Rodrigo Pinto & Peter Savelyev & Adam Yavitz, 2010. "Analyzing social experiments as implemented: evidence from the HighScope Perry Preschool Program," CeMMAP working papers CWP22/10, Centre for Microdata Methods and Practice, Institute for Fiscal Studies.
    10. Marc F. Bellemare & Lindsey Novak, 2017. "Contract Farming and Food Security," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 99(2), pages 357-378.
    11. Nava Ashraf & Xavier Giné & Dean Karlan, 2009. "Finding Missing Markets (and a Disturbing Epilogue): Evidence from an Export Crop Adoption and Marketing Intervention in Kenya," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 91(4), pages 973-990.
    12. Rocco Macchiavello & Ameet Morjaria, 2015. "The Value of Relationships: Evidence from a Supply Shock to Kenyan Rose Exports," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 105(9), pages 2911-2945, September.
    13. Mighell, Ronald L. & Jones, Lawrence A., 1963. "Vertical Coordination in Agriculture," Agricultural Economic Reports 307164, United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
    14. Daniel A. Ackerberg & Maristella Botticini, 2002. "Endogenous Matching and the Empirical Determinants of Contract Form," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 110(3), pages 564-591, June.
    15. Barrett, Christopher B. & Bachke, Maren E. & Bellemare, Marc F. & Michelson, Hope C. & Narayanan, Sudha & Walker, Thomas F., 2012. "Smallholder Participation in Contract Farming: Comparative Evidence from Five Countries," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 40(4), pages 715-730.
    16. Lorenzo Casaburi & Rocco Macchiavello, 2019. "Demand and Supply of Infrequent Payments as a Commitment Device: Evidence from Kenya," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 109(2), pages 523-555, February.
    17. Konrad B Burchardi & Selim Gulesci & Benedetta Lerva & Munshi Sulaiman, 2019. "Moral Hazard: Experimental Evidence from Tenancy Contracts," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 134(1), pages 281-347.
    18. Aminou Arouna & Jeffrey D. Michler & Wilfried G. Yergo & Kazuki Saito, 2021. "One Size Fits All? Experimental Evidence on the Digital Delivery of Personalized Extension Advice in Nigeria," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 103(2), pages 596-619, March.
    19. Ton, Giel & Vellema, Wytse & Desiere, Sam & Weituschat, Sophia & D'Haese, Marijke, 2018. "Contract farming for improving smallholder incomes: What can we learn from effectiveness studies?," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 46-64.
    20. Miyata, Sachiko & Minot, Nicholas & Hu, Dinghuan, 2009. "Impact of Contract Farming on Income: Linking Small Farmers, Packers, and Supermarkets in China," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 37(11), pages 1781-1790, November.
    21. Kim, Tae-Kyun & Hayes, Dermot J. & Hallam, Arne, 1992. "Technology adoption under price uncertainty," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 245-253, January.
    22. Christopher B. Barrett & Luc Christiaensen & Megan Sheahan & Abebe Shimeles, 2017. "On the Structural Transformation of Rural Africa," Journal of African Economies, Centre for the Study of African Economies, vol. 26(suppl_1), pages 11-35.
    23. Gershon Feder & Jock R. Anderson & Regina Birner & Klaus Deininger, 2010. "Promises and Realities of Community-Based Agricultural Extension," Palgrave Macmillan Books, in: Keijiro Otsuka & Kaliappa Kalirajan (ed.), Community, Market and State in Development, chapter 12, pages 187-208, Palgrave Macmillan.
    24. Ragasa, Catherine & Lambrecht, Isabel & Kufoalor, Doreen S., 2018. "Limitations of Contract Farming as a Pro-poor Strategy: The Case of Maize Outgrower Schemes in Upper West Ghana," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 102(C), pages 30-56.
    25. Deb, Rahul & Suri, Tavneet, 2013. "Endogenous emergence of credit markets: Contracting in response to a new technology in Ghana," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 101(C), pages 268-283.
    26. Berg, Erlend, 2013. "Are poor people credit-constrained or myopic? Evidence from a South African panel," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 101(C), pages 195-205.
    27. repec:oup:apecpp:v:40:y:2018:i:3:p:353-378. is not listed on IDEAS
    28. Arthur Blouin & Rocco Macchiavello, 2019. "Strategic Default in the International Coffee Market," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 134(2), pages 895-951.
    29. Katherine Casey & Rachel Glennerster & Edward Miguel, 2012. "Reshaping Institutions: Evidence on Aid Impacts Using a Preanalysis Plan," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 127(4), pages 1755-1812.
    30. Alexander Sarris & Jamie Morrison (ed.), 2010. "Food Security in Africa," Books, Edward Elgar Publishing, number 13755, December.
    31. Marc F. Bellemare, 2010. "Agricultural extension and imperfect supervision in contract farming: evidence from Madagascar," Agricultural Economics, International Association of Agricultural Economists, vol. 41(6), pages 507-517, November.
    32. Reardon, Thomas & Barrett, Christopher B. & Berdegué, Julio A. & Swinnen, Johan F.M., 2009. "Agrifood Industry Transformation and Small Farmers in Developing Countries," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 37(11), pages 1717-1727, November.
    33. Rodrigo Pinto & Azeem Shaikh & Adam Yavitz & James Heckman, 2010. "Inference with Imperfect Randomization: The Case of the Perry Preschool Program," 2010 Meeting Papers 1336, Society for Economic Dynamics.
    34. Singh, Sukhpal, 2002. "Contracting Out Solutions: Political Economy of Contract Farming in the Indian Punjab," 2002 ASAE 3rd International Conference, October 18-20, Jaipur, India 294714, Asian Society of Agricultural Economists (ASAE).
    35. Michelson, Hope & Reardon, Thomas & Perez, Francisco, 2012. "Small Farmers and Big Retail: Trade-offs of Supplying Supermarkets in Nicaragua," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 40(2), pages 342-354.
    36. Abay, Kibrom A. & Abate, Gashaw T. & Barrett, Christopher B. & Bernard, Tanguy, 2019. "Correlated non-classical measurement errors, ‘Second best’ policy inference, and the inverse size-productivity relationship in agriculture," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 139(C), pages 171-184.
    37. Soohyung Lee & Azeem M. Shaikh, 2014. "Multiple Testing And Heterogeneous Treatment Effects: Re‐Evaluating The Effect Of Progresa On School Enrollment," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 29(4), pages 612-626, June.
    38. Lorenzo Casaburi & Jack Willis, 2018. "Time versus State in Insurance: Experimental Evidence from Contract Farming in Kenya," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 108(12), pages 3778-3813, December.
    39. Eko Ruddy Cahyadi & Hermann Waibel, 2016. "Contract Farming and Vulnerability to Poverty among Oil Palm Smallholders in Indonesia," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 52(5), pages 681-695, May.
    40. Ksoll, Christopher & Lilleør, Helene Bie & Lønborg, Jonas Helth & Rasmussen, Ole Dahl, 2016. "Impact of Village Savings and Loan Associations: Evidence from a cluster randomized trial," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 120(C), pages 70-85.
    41. Johan F. M. Swinnen & Miet Maertens, 2007. "Globalization, privatization, and vertical coordination in food value chains in developing and transition countries," Agricultural Economics, International Association of Agricultural Economists, vol. 37(s1), pages 89-102, December.
    42. Rema Hanna & Sendhil Mullainathan & Joshua Schwartzstein, 2014. "Learning Through Noticing: Theory and Evidence from a Field Experiment," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 129(3), pages 1311-1353.
    43. Just, Richard E. & Pope, Rulon D., 1978. "Stochastic specification of production functions and economic implications," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 7(1), pages 67-86, February.
    44. Bellemare, Marc F., 2012. "As You Sow, So Shall You Reap: The Welfare Impacts of Contract Farming," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 40(7), pages 1418-1434.
    45. McArthur, John W. & McCord, Gordon C., 2017. "Fertilizing growth: Agricultural inputs and their effects in economic development," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 127(C), pages 133-152.
    46. Marc F. Bellemare, 2018. "Contract farming: opportunity cost and trade†offs," Agricultural Economics, International Association of Agricultural Economists, vol. 49(3), pages 279-288, May.
    47. Gatto, Marcel & Wollni, Meike & Asnawi, Rosyani & Qaim, Matin, 2017. "Oil Palm Boom, Contract Farming, and Rural Economic Development: Village-Level Evidence from Indonesia," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 127-140.
    48. Sherlund, Shane M. & Barrett, Christopher B. & Adesina, Akinwumi A., 2002. "Smallholder technical efficiency controlling for environmental production conditions," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(1), pages 85-101, October.
    49. McKenzie, David, 2012. "Beyond baseline and follow-up: The case for more T in experiments," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(2), pages 210-221.
    50. Omotilewa, Oluwatoba J. & Ricker-Gilbert, Jacob & Ainembabazi, John Herbert & Shively, Gerald E., 2018. "Does improved storage technology promote modern input use and food security? Evidence from a randomized trial in Uganda," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 135(C), pages 176-198.
    51. Bellemare, Marc F. & Bloem, Jeffrey R., 2018. "Does contract farming improve welfare? A review," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 259-271.
    52. Jeffrey R Kling & Jeffrey B Liebman & Lawrence F Katz, 2007. "Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 75(1), pages 83-119, January.
    53. Guillaume Soullier & Paule Moustier, 2018. "Impacts of contract farming in domestic grain chains on farmer income and food insecurity. Contrasted evidence from Senegal," Post-Print hal-02621852, HAL.
    54. Jones, Maria & Kondylis, Florence, 2018. "Does feedback matter? Evidence from agricultural services," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 131(C), pages 28-41.
    55. Singh, Sukhpal, 2002. "Contracting Out Solutions: Political Economy of Contract Farming in the Indian Punjab," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 30(9), pages 1621-1638, September.
    56. H. Holly Wang & Yanbing Wang & Michael S. Delgado, 2014. "The Transition to Modern Agriculture: Contract Farming in Developing Economies," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 96(5), pages 1257-1271.
    57. Dries, Liesbeth & Swinnen, Johan F. M., 2004. "Foreign Direct Investment, Vertical Integration, and Local Suppliers: Evidence from the Polish Dairy Sector," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 32(9), pages 1525-1544, September.
    58. David S. Lee, 2009. "Training, Wages, and Sample Selection: Estimating Sharp Bounds on Treatment Effects," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 76(3), pages 1071-1102.
    59. Keijiro Otsuka & Yuko Nakano & Kazushi Takahashi, 2016. "Contract Farming in Developed and Developing Countries," Annual Review of Resource Economics, Annual Reviews, vol. 8(1), pages 353-376, October.
    60. Peter Timmer, C., 1988. "The agricultural transformation," Handbook of Development Economics, in: Hollis Chenery & T.N. Srinivasan (ed.), Handbook of Development Economics, edition 1, volume 1, chapter 8, pages 275-331, Elsevier.
    61. Yuko Nakano & Yuki Tanaka & Keijiro Otsuka, 2018. "Impact of training on the intensification of rice farming: evidence from rainfed areas in Tanzania," Agricultural Economics, International Association of Agricultural Economists, vol. 49(2), pages 193-202, March.
    62. Daron Acemoglu & Simon Johnson & Todd Mitton, 2009. "Determinants of Vertical Integration: Financial Development and Contracting Costs," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 64(3), pages 1251-1290, June.
    63. Abebe, Gumataw K. & Bijman, Jos & Kemp, Ron & Omta, Onno & Tsegaye, Admasu, 2013. "Contract farming configuration: Smallholders’ preferences for contract design attributes," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 40(C), pages 14-24.
    64. Emma C. Stephens & Christopher B. Barrett, 2011. "Incomplete Credit Markets and Commodity Marketing Behaviour," Journal of Agricultural Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 62(1), pages 1-24, February.
    65. Rao, Elizaphan J.O. & Qaim, Matin, 2011. "Supermarkets, Farm Household Income, and Poverty: Insights from Kenya," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 39(5), pages 784-796, May.
    66. Casaburi, Lorenzo & ,, 2018. "Time vs. State in Insurance: Experimental Evidence from Contract Farming in Kenya," CEPR Discussion Papers 12896, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    67. Narayanan, Sudha, 2014. "Profits from participation in high value agriculture: Evidence of heterogeneous benefits in contract farming schemes in Southern India," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 142-157.
    68. Marc F. Bellemare & Christopher B. Barrett & David R. Just, 2013. "The Welfare Impacts of Commodity Price Volatility: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 95(4), pages 877-899.
    69. Saha, Atanu, 1994. "A two-season agricultural household model of output and price uncertainty," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 45(2), pages 245-269, December.
    70. Ashraf, Nava & Giné, Xavier & Karlan, Dean S., 2009. "AJAE appendix for “Finding Missing Markets (and a Disturbing Epilogue): Evidence from an Export Crop Adoption and Marketing Intervention in Kenya”," American Journal of Agricultural Economics APPENDICES, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 91(4), pages 1-9, February.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Bellemare, Marc F. & Bloem, Jeffrey R., 2018. "Does contract farming improve welfare? A review," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 259-271.
    2. Viet Hoang & Vinh Nguyen, 2023. "Determinants of small farmers' participation in contract farming in developing countries: A study in Vietnam," Agribusiness, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 39(3), pages 836-853, July.
    3. Khan, Muhammad Fawad & Nakano, Yuko & Kurosaki, Takashi, 2019. "Impact of contract farming on land productivity and income of maize and potato growers in Pakistan," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(C), pages 28-39.
    4. Ruml, Anette & Qaim, Matin, 2020. "Effects of marketing contracts and resource-providing contracts in the African small farm sector: Insights from oil palm production in Ghana," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 136(C).
    5. Ba, Hélène A. & de Mey, Yann & Thoron, Sylvie & Demont, Matty, 2019. "Inclusiveness of contract farming along the vertical coordination continuum: Evidence from the Vietnamese rice sector," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 87(C).
    6. Viet Hoang, 2021. "Impact of Contract Farming on Farmers’ Income in the Food Value Chain: A Theoretical Analysis and Empirical Study in Vietnam," Agriculture, MDPI, vol. 11(8), pages 1-16, August.
    7. Ragasa, Catherine & Lambrecht, Isabel & Kufoalor, Doreen S., 2018. "Limitations of Contract Farming as a Pro-poor Strategy: The Case of Maize Outgrower Schemes in Upper West Ghana," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 102(C), pages 30-56.
    8. repec:oup:apecpp:v:40:y:2018:i:3:p:379-401. is not listed on IDEAS
    9. Ayeduvor Selorm & D. B. S. Sarpong & Irene S. Egyir & Akwasi Mensah Bonsu & Henry An, 2023. "Does contract farming affect technical efficiency? Evidence from soybean farmers in Northern Ghana," Agricultural and Food Economics, Springer;Italian Society of Agricultural Economics (SIDEA), vol. 11(1), pages 1-22, December.
    10. Ola, Oreoluwa & Menapace, Luisa, 2020. "A meta-analysis understanding smallholder entry into high-value markets," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    11. Ochieng, Dennis O. & Veettil, Prakashan C. & Qaim, Matin, 2017. "Farmers’ preferences for supermarket contracts in Kenya," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 100-111.
    12. Maertens, Miet & Vande Velde, Katrien, 2017. "Contract-farming in Staple Food Chains: The Case of Rice in Benin," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 73-87.
    13. Delelegne A. Tefera & Jos Bijman, 2021. "Economics of contracts in African food systems: evidence from the malt barley sector in Ethiopia," Agricultural and Food Economics, Springer;Italian Society of Agricultural Economics (SIDEA), vol. 9(1), pages 1-21, December.
    14. Otsuka, Keijiro & Ali, Mubarik, 2020. "Strategy for the development of agro-based clusters," World Development Perspectives, Elsevier, vol. 20(C).
    15. Anette Ruml & Catherine Ragasa & Matin Qaim, 2022. "Contract farming, contract design and smallholder livelihoods," Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society, vol. 66(1), pages 24-43, January.
    16. Anette Ruml & Martin C. Parlasca, 2022. "In‐kind credit provision through contract farming and formal credit markets," Agribusiness, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 38(2), pages 402-425, April.
    17. Briones, Roehlano M., 2015. "Small Farmers in High-Value Chains: Binding or Relaxing Constraints to Inclusive Growth?," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 43-52.
    18. Lambrecht, Isabel Brigitte & Ragasa, Catherine, 2018. "Do development projects crowd-out private sector activities? Evidence from contract farming participation in Northern Ghana," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 9-22.
    19. Adu-Gyamfi Poku & Regina Birner & Saurabh Gupta, 2018. "Making Contract Farming Arrangements Work in Africa’s Bioeconomy: Evidence from Cassava Outgrower Schemes in Ghana," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(5), pages 1-21, May.
    20. Marc F. Bellemare, 2018. "Contract farming: opportunity cost and trade†offs," Agricultural Economics, International Association of Agricultural Economists, vol. 49(3), pages 279-288, May.
    21. Ton, Giel & Vellema, Wytse & Desiere, Sam & Weituschat, Sophia & D'Haese, Marijke, 2018. "Contract farming for improving smallholder incomes: What can we learn from effectiveness studies?," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 46-64.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Community/Rural/Urban Development; Farm Management;

    JEL classification:

    • C93 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Design of Experiments - - - Field Experiments
    • L14 - Industrial Organization - - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance - - - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation
    • O13 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Environment; Other Primary Products
    • Q12 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Agriculture - - - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:ags:aaae19:295717. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: AgEcon Search (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/aaaeaea.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.