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The Relation Between Earnings Management and Non†GAAP Reporting

Author

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  • Ervin L. Black
  • Theodore E. Christensen
  • T. Taylor Joo
  • Roy Schmardebeck

Abstract

Managers have a variety of tools at their disposal to influence stakeholder perceptions. Earnings management and the strategic reporting of non†GAAP earnings are just two of the available menu choices. We explore how real earnings management and accruals management influence the probability that a company will disclose a non†GAAP adjusted earnings metric in its earnings press release and the likelihood that it will do so aggressively. We first investigate situations where managers already meet analysts’ expectations either based on strong operating performance or after employing real and accruals management. We find that when solid operating performance alone allows firms to meet expectations, managers do not employ earnings management or non†GAAP reporting. However, when managers meet expectations using real and accruals management, they are significantly less likely to report a non†GAAP earnings metric. Next, we explore scenarios where companies fall short of expectations. We find that when they just miss expectations after managing GAAP earnings, they are significantly more likely to employ non†GAAP reporting, suggesting that the timing and relatively costless nature of non†GAAP reporting allows managers to appear to meet expectations on a non†GAAP basis when managed GAAP earnings fall short. Moreover, we find that companies are more likely to report non†GAAP earnings (and to do so aggressively) when (i) they are unable to use real or accruals earnings management, (ii) are constrained by prior†period accruals management, and (iii) their operating performance is poor. Taken together, our results are consistent with a substitute relation between non†GAAP reporting and both real and accruals management.Les gestionnaires disposent d'une variété d'outils leur permettant d'exercer une influence sur la perception des parties prenantes. La gestion du résultat et la publication stratégique de résultats non conformes aux PCGR ne sont que deux des possibilités que leur offre cet arsenal. Les auteurs se demandent comment la gestion du résultat réel et la gestion des régularisations influent sur la probabilité qu'une société publie une mesure du résultat ajusté non conforme aux PCGR dans ses communiqués sur les résultats et sur la possibilité qu'elle le fasse avec audace (c'est†à †dire en excluant des éléments récurrents). Ils se penchent en premier lieu sur des situations dans lesquelles les gestionnaires comblent déjà les attentes des analystes, soit en affichant un rendement élevé de l'exploitation soit en recourant à la gestion du résultat réel et à la gestion des régularisations. Les auteurs constatent que, lorsque le rendement élevé de l'exploitation permet à lui seul à l'entreprise de combler les attentes, les gestionnaires n'ont recours ni à la gestion du résultat ni à la publication d'information non conforme aux PCGR. Toutefois, lorsque les gestionnaires comblent les attentes en recourant à la gestion du résultat réel et à la gestion des régularisations, ils sont sensiblement moins susceptibles de publier des mesures du résultat non conformes aux PCGR. Les auteurs étudient en second lieu les scénarios dans lesquels les sociétés ne comblent pas les attentes. Ils constatent que, lorsqu'elles s'approchent de ces attentes, une fois géré le résultat conforme aux PCGR, ces sociétés sont beaucoup plus susceptibles de recourir à l'information non conforme aux PCGR, ce qui semble indiquer que le choix du moment et la nature relativement peu onéreuse de l'information non conforme aux PCGR permettent aux gestionnaires de paraître combler les attentes, hors PCGR, lorsque les résultats gérés conformes aux PCGR sont inférieurs aux attentes. De plus, les auteurs notent que les sociétés sont davantage susceptibles de faire état de résultats non conformes aux PCGR (et cela avec audace) lorsqu'elles sont dans l'impossibilité de recourir à la gestion du résultat réel ou à la gestion des régularisations, que les régularisations de l'exercice précédent leur imposent des limites, et que le rendement de leur exploitation est faible. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats de l’étude confirment l'existence d'une relation substitutive entre l'information financière non conforme aux PCGR, d'une part, et la gestion du résultat réel et des régularisations, d'autre part.

Suggested Citation

  • Ervin L. Black & Theodore E. Christensen & T. Taylor Joo & Roy Schmardebeck, 2017. "The Relation Between Earnings Management and Non†GAAP Reporting," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 34(2), pages 750-782, June.
  • Handle: RePEc:wly:coacre:v:34:y:2017:i:2:p:750-782
    DOI: 10.1111/1911-3846.12284
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    Cited by:

    1. Shiah-Hou, Shin-Rong, 2021. "The relation between non-GAAP earnings and accounting restatements: Evidence after regulation G," Advances in accounting, Elsevier, vol. 55(C).
    2. Florian Meier, 2020. "The Age of Cheap Money and Passive Investing: Are Pro Forma Earnings Value Relevant?," Journal of Finance and Investment Analysis, SCIENPRESS Ltd, vol. 9(2), pages 1-1.
    3. Hsu, Charles & Wang, Rencheng & Whipple, Benjamin C., 2022. "Non-GAAP earnings and stock price crash risk," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 73(2).
    4. Peter Demerjian & John Donovan & Melissa F. Lewis‐Western, 2020. "Income Smoothing and the Usefulness of Earnings for Monitoring in Debt Contracting," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 37(2), pages 857-884, June.
    5. Ahmed M. Elnahas & Pankaj K. Jain & Thomas H. McInish, 2022. "Mixed‐signal stock splits," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 49(5-6), pages 934-962, May.
    6. Bradshaw, Mark T. & Christensen, Theodore E. & Gee, Kurt H. & Whipple, Benjamin C., 2018. "Analysts’ GAAP earnings forecasts and their implications for accounting research," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(1), pages 46-66.
    7. Greg Clinch & Ann Tarca & Marvin Wee, 2023. "Cross‐country diversity and non‐IFRS financial performance measures," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(2), pages 2473-2502, June.
    8. Hills, Robert & Kubic, Matthew & Mayew, William J., 2021. "State sponsors of terrorism disclosure and SEC financial reporting oversight," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 72(1).
    9. Claudia Arena & Simona Catuogno & Nicola Moscariello, 2021. "The unusual debate on non-GAAP reporting in the current standard practice. The lens of corporate governance," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 25(3), pages 655-684, September.
    10. Laurion, Henry, 2020. "Implications of Non-GAAP earnings for real activities and accounting choices," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(1).
    11. Robert Kim, 2023. "Do more able managers provide better non‐GAAP earnings?," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(2), pages 1983-2012, June.
    12. Nilabhra Bhattacharya & Theodore E. Christensen & Qunfeng Liao & Bo Ouyang, 2022. "Can short sellers constrain aggressive non-GAAP reporting?," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 27(2), pages 391-440, June.
    13. Novia (Xi) Chen & Peng-Chia Chiu & Terry Shevlin & Jiani Wang, 2023. "Taxes in Non-GAAP Reporting: Evidence of Strategic Behavior in Selecting Tax Rates Applied to Exclusions," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 69(5), pages 3100-3120, May.
    14. Jing He & Marlene A. Plumlee, 2020. "Measuring disclosure using 8-K filings," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 25(3), pages 903-962, September.
    15. Theodore E. Christensen & Enrique Gomez & Matthew Ma & Jing Pan, 2021. "Analysts’ role in shaping non-GAAP reporting: evidence from a natural experiment," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 26(1), pages 172-217, March.
    16. Kyung, Hangsoo & Lee, Hakyin & Marquardt, Carol, 2019. "The effect of voluntary clawback adoption on non-GAAP reporting," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 67(1), pages 175-201.
    17. Ahsan Habib & Dinithi Ranasinghe & Julia Yonghua Wu & Pallab Kumar Biswas & Fawad Ahmad, 2022. "Real earnings management: A review of the international literature," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 62(4), pages 4279-4344, December.
    18. Paul A. Griffin & David H. Lont, 2021. "Evidence of an increasing trend in earnings surprises over the past two decades: The role of positive manager‐initiated non‐GAAP adjustments," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 48(9-10), pages 1525-1559, October.
    19. Ting Zhang & So Yean Kwack & Yi Si & Gaoliang Tian, 2023. "Non‐GAAP earnings reporting following going‐concern opinions," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(3), pages 3217-3252, September.
    20. Sascha B. Herr & Peter Lorson & Jochen Pilhofer, 2022. "Alternative Performance Measures: A Structured Literature Review of Research in Academic and Professional Journals," Schmalenbach Journal of Business Research, Springer, vol. 74(3), pages 389-451, September.
    21. Mark Brosnan & Keith Duncan & Tim Hasso & Janice Hollindale, 2023. "Non‐GAAP earnings and executive compensation: An experiment," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(4), pages 4375-4398, December.
    22. Nicola Dalla Via & Paolo Perego, 2018. "Determinants of Conflict Minerals Disclosure Under the Dodd–Frank Act," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 27(6), pages 773-788, September.

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