Impact of Gender Unemployment on Environmental Pollution in Iran’s Provinces

One of the most challenging issues in environmental economics has been addressing the fundamental question of whether economic growth leads to environmental pollution. The gender dimension of the labor market, which can influence environmental behaviors, has so far received limited attention in environmental modeling. The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between gendered unemployment and environmental pollution within the framework of the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis across the provinces of Iran. The research data are collected annually for 31 provinces over the period 2011–2021, and panel data methods are employed to estimate the effects of female and male unemployment rates on carbon dioxide emissions. The findings indicate that economic growth leads to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions; therefore, Iran’s provinces are located on the downward-sloping segment of the Environmental Kuznets Curve. The results also show that an increase in male unemployment is associated with a reduction in environmental pollution, whereas an increase in female unemployment leads to intensified environmental degradation. Moreover, an increase in gender inequality in unemployment also results in higher environmental pollution. Based on these results, the Environmental Phillips Curve hypothesis is confirmed only for men in Iran’s provinces. The findings further indicate that improving women’s employment levels and increasing their economic participation can contribute to better environmental conditions. These results highlight the importance of women’s participation in the labor market from an environmental perspective and demonstrate that women’s employment not only does not have a negative impact on the environment, but can also be a factor in improving environmental quality.