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Mapping network structures and dynamics of decentralised cryptocurrencies: The evolution of Bitcoin (2009–2023)

Author

Listed:
  • Marco Venturini
  • Daniel García-Costa
  • Elena Álvarez-García
  • Francisco Grimaldo
  • Flaminio Squazzoni

Abstract

At the beginning of July 2025, the global cryptocurrency market capitalisation reached more than $2.8 trillion, with 1 Bitcoin exchanging for more than $105,000. As cryptocurrencies are becoming part of the global financial infrastructure, monitoring their evolution is crucial for determining whether they can be considered a sustainable long-term financial exchange system. In this paper, we have reconstructed the network structures and dynamics of Bitcoin from its launch in January 2009 to December 2023 and identified its key evolutionary phases. Our results show that network centralisation and wealth concentration increased from the very early years, following a richer-get-richer mechanism. This trend was endogenous to the system, beyond any subsequent institutional or exogenous influence. The evolution of Bitcoin is characterised by three periods, Exploration, Adaptation, and Maturity, with substantial coherent network patterns. Our findings suggest that Bitcoin is a highly centralised structure, with high levels of wealth inequality and internally crystallised power dynamics, which may have negative implications for its long-term sustainability.

Suggested Citation

  • Marco Venturini & Daniel García-Costa & Elena Álvarez-García & Francisco Grimaldo & Flaminio Squazzoni, 2025. "Mapping network structures and dynamics of decentralised cryptocurrencies: The evolution of Bitcoin (2009–2023)," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 20(8), pages 1-18, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:plo:pone00:0329617
    DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0329617
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Jiaqi Liang & Linjing Li & Daniel Zeng, 2018. "Evolutionary dynamics of cryptocurrency transaction networks: An empirical study," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 13(8), pages 1-18, August.
    2. Morten Linnemann Bech & Rodney Garratt, 2017. "Central bank cryptocurrencies," BIS Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, September.
    3. Jiaqi Liang & Linjing Li & Daniel Zeng, 2018. "Evolutionary dynamics of cryptocurrency transaction networks: An empirical study," Papers 1808.08585, arXiv.org.
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    Cited by:

    1. Frans Lavdari, 2026. "Bitcoin: after 15 years, is it worth?," International Economics and Economic Policy, Springer, vol. 23(3), pages 1-56, July.

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