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Effect of Inter-Observer Variation on the Association between Contamination Hazards and the Microbiological Quality of Water Sources: A Longitudinal Study

Author

Listed:
  • Joseph Okotto-Okotto

    (Victoria Institute for Research on Environment and Development (VIRED) International, P.O. Box 6423-40103, off Nairobi Road, Rabour, Kisumu, Kenya)

  • Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva

    (School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road, Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK)

  • Emmah Kwoba

    (International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709-00100, Naivasha Road, Nairobi, Kenya)

  • Samuel.M Thumbi

    (Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
    Institute of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 19676-00202, Nairobi, Kenya
    Paul G Allen School for Global Animal Health, Washington State University, P.O. Box 647090, Pullman, WA 99164, USA)

  • Peggy Wanza

    (Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya)

  • Weiyu Yu

    (School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK)

  • Jim A. Wright

    (School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK)

Abstract

Sanitary risk inspection protocols are often used to identify contamination hazards at water sources; however, different observers sometimes struggle to record hazards consistently. This study aimed to assess the effect of inter-observer variation in hazard observations on the strength of relationships between observed hazards and the bacterial contamination of water sources, particularly relationships with animal-related hazards. In a longitudinal study, five surveyors independently recorded hazards at 93 water sources used by 234 households in Siaya County, Kenya, in both wet and dry seasons. One surveyor collected samples from sources for subsequent Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci testing. The relationship between each surveyor’s hazard observations and high bacterial contamination was examined using logistic regression. After controlling for water source type and preceding rainfall; percentage scores for animal-related hazards were significantly related to high contamination with enterococci and E. coli for one surveyor (odds ratio 1.02; 95% confidence intervals 1.00–1.03 for both parameters), but not for the remaining four surveyors. The relationship between observed contamination hazards and the microbiological contamination of water sources is sensitive to variation in hazard recording between surveyors. Sanitary risk protocols should be designed to enable robust and consistent observation of hazards.

Suggested Citation

  • Joseph Okotto-Okotto & Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva & Emmah Kwoba & Samuel.M Thumbi & Peggy Wanza & Weiyu Yu & Jim A. Wright, 2020. "Effect of Inter-Observer Variation on the Association between Contamination Hazards and the Microbiological Quality of Water Sources: A Longitudinal Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(24), pages 1-15, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:17:y:2020:i:24:p:9192-:d:459152
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Aaron Gichaba Misati & George Ogendi & Rachel Peletz & Ranjiv Khush & Emily Kumpel, 2017. "Can Sanitary Surveys Replace Water Quality Testing? Evidence from Kisii, Kenya," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 14(2), pages 1-12, February.
    2. S M Thumbi & M Kariuki Njenga & Thomas L Marsh & Susan Noh & Elkanah Otiang & Peninah Munyua & Linus Ochieng & Eric Ogola & Jonathan Yoder & Allan Audi & Joel M Montgomery & Godfrey Bigogo & Robert F , 2015. "Linking Human Health and Livestock Health: A “One-Health” Platform for Integrated Analysis of Human Health, Livestock Health, and Economic Welfare in Livestock Dependent Communities," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 10(3), pages 1-18, March.
    3. Robert Bain & Ryan Cronk & Jim Wright & Hong Yang & Tom Slaymaker & Jamie Bartram, 2014. "Fecal Contamination of Drinking-Water in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis," PLOS Medicine, Public Library of Science, vol. 11(5), pages 1-23, May.
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