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Crop commercialization, structural change and income inequality: Insights from smallholder farmers in rural Southeast Asia

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  • Do, Manh Hung
  • Nguyen, Trung Thanh
  • Grote, Ulrike

Abstract

Structural change in agriculture is an integral part of economic development in developing economies. The process of structural change is accompanied by adjustments within and outside agriculture, such as the development of mechanization and the shift to non-farm employment. We examine the correlations of crop commercialization with structural change and assess how the benefits of crop commercialization are distributed across farm and total income quantiles. We use a balanced panel of 2,867 rural smallholder farmers collected from Thailand and Vietnam, two middle-income countries in Southeast Asia for empirical analyses. Our panel includes three survey waves conducted in 2010, 2013, and 2016 with a total of 8,601 observations. Regarding the correlation of crop commercialization with structural change, our simultaneous equation model results show that crop commercialization is positively related to crop mechanization. The results of fixed-effects estimation with a control function approach indicate that an increase in crop commercialization has a positive correlation with non-farm employment. Besides, the results of unconditional quantile regression models suggest that an increase in crop commercialization leads to an increase of about 25.4% and 5.6% in per capita farm income of smallholders in the 10th and 25th quantile groups, while it increases the per capita total income of smallholders in the 10th and 25th quantile groups by about 10.2% and 5.7%, respectively. Hence, we recommend facilitating the commercialization of crops by smallholder farmers to stimulate the structural transformation of agriculture at the micro level and to reduce income inequality of smallholder farmers.

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  • Do, Manh Hung & Nguyen, Trung Thanh & Grote, Ulrike, 2026. "Crop commercialization, structural change and income inequality: Insights from smallholder farmers in rural Southeast Asia," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 197(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:wdevel:v:197:y:2026:i:c:s0305750x25002980
    DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2025.107212
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    JEL classification:

    • C33 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables - - - Models with Panel Data; Spatio-temporal Models
    • Q00 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - General - - - General
    • Q12 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Agriculture - - - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets

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