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The Effects of 401(k) Plans on Household Wealth: Differences Across Earnings Groups

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Author Info
Eric M. Engen
William G. Gale

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Abstract

This paper provides a new econometric specification and new evidence on the impact of 401(k) plans on household wealth. We allow the impact of 401(k)s to vary over both time and earnings groups. Our specification--motivated by a variety of theoretical considerations and data patterns--generalizes earlier work in the literature, and we show that the modeling constraints imposed by previous authors are rejected by the data. Using data from 1987 and 1991 from the Survey of Income and Program Participation, we find that the effects of 401(k)s on household wealth vary significantly by earnings level. Our analysis implies that 401(k)s held by groups with low earnings, who hold a small portion of 401(k) balances, are more likely to represent additions to net wealth than 401(k)s held by high-earning groups, who hold the bulk of 401(k) assets. Overall, between 0 and 30 percent of 401(k) balances represent net additions to private saving in the sample period.

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Paper provided by National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc in its series NBER Working Papers with number 8032.

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Date of creation: Dec 2000
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Handle: RePEc:nbr:nberwo:8032

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References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
  1. Gale, W.G. & scholz, J.K., 1992. "IRAS and Household Saving," Papers 9244, Tilburg - Center for Economic Research.
    Other versions:
  2. B. Douglas Bernheim & Daniel M. Garrett, 1996. "The Determinants and Consequences of Financial Education in the Workplace: Evidence from a Survey of Households," NBER Working Papers 5667, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  3. Eric M. Engen & William G. Gale & John Karl Scholz, 1996. "The Effects of Tax-Based Saving Incentives On Saving and Wealth," NBER Working Papers 5759, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  4. Glenn R. Hubbard & Jonathan Skinner & Stephen P. Zeldes, . "Precautionary Saving and Social Insurance," Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research Working Papers 3-95, Wharton School Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research.
    Other versions:
  5. James M. Poterba & Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1997. "Personal Retirement Saving Programs and Asset Accumulation: Reconciling the Evidence," NBER Working Papers 5599, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  6. Hubbard, R Glenn & Skinner, Jonathan S, 1996. "Assessing the Effectiveness of Saving Incentives," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 73-90, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  7. B. Douglas Bernheim, 1999. "Taxation and Saving," Working Papers 99007, Stanford University, Department of Economics. [Downloadable!]
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  8. Poterba, James M & Venti, Steven F & Wise, David A, 1996. "How Retirement Saving Programs Increase Saving," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 91-112, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  9. Poterba, James M, 1984. "Tax Subsidies to Owner-occupied Housing: An Asset-Market Approach," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, MIT Press, vol. 99(4), pages 729-52, November. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  10. Andrea L. Kusko & James M. Poterba & David W. Wilcox, 1994. "Employee Decisions with Respect to 401(k) Plans: Evidence From Individual-Level Data," NBER Working Papers 4635, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  11. Poterba, James M. & Venti, Steven F. & Wise, David A., 1995. "Do 401(k) contributions crowd out other personal saving?," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(1), pages 1-32, September. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  12. Karen E. Dynan & Jonathan Skinner & Stephen P. Zeldes, 2000. "Do the Rich Save More?," NBER Working Papers 7906, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  13. Brigitte C. Madrian & Dennis F. Shea, 2000. "The Power of Suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) Participation and Savings Behavior," NBER Working Papers 7682, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  14. Lawrence H. Summers, 1981. "Inflation, the Stock Market, and Owner-Occupied Housing," NBER Working Papers 0606, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  15. William G. Gale & John Sabelhaus, 1999. "Perspectives on the Household Saving Rate," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 30(1999-1), pages 181-224. [Downloadable!]
  16. James M. Poterba & Andrew A. Samwick, 1997. "Household Portfolio Allocation Over the Life Cycle," NBER Working Papers 6185, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  17. David I. Laibson & Andrea Repetto & Jeremy Tobacman, 1998. "Self-Control and Saving for Retirement," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 29(1998-1), pages 91-196. [Downloadable!]
  18. B. Douglas Bernheim, 1996. "Rethinking Saving Incentives," Working Papers 96009, Stanford University, Department of Economics. [Downloadable!]
  19. Leslie E. Papke, 1996. "Are 401(k) Plans Replacing Other Employer-Provided Pensions? Evidence from Panel Data," NBER Working Papers 5736, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  20. Martin Feldstein, 1981. "Inflation, Portfolio Choice, and the Price of Land and Corporate Stock," NBER Working Papers 0526, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
Full references

Cited by:
(explanations, Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.)

  1. Mark Schreiner & Michael Sherraden & Margaret Clancy & Lissa Johnson & Jami Curley & Min Zahn & Sondra Beverly & Michal Grinstein-Weiss, 2001. "Asset Accumulation in Low-Resource Households: Evidence from Individual Development Accounts," Microeconomics 0108001, EconWPA, revised 27 Dec 2001. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  2. Juan Ayuso & Juan F. Jimeno & Ernesto Villanueva, 2007. "The effects of the introduction of tax incentives on retirement savings," Banco de España Working Papers 0724, Banco de España. [Downloadable!]
  3. Karen M. Pence, 2002. "401(k)s and household saving: new evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2002-6, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.). [Downloadable!]
  4. Christian E. Weller, 2006. "The Recent Stock Market Fluctuations and Retirement Income Adequacy," Eastern Economic Journal, Palgrave Macmillan Journals, vol. 32(1), pages 67-81, Winter. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  5. Mark Schreiner, 2001. "Match Rates and Savings: Evidence from Individual Development Accounts," Microeconomics 0108003, EconWPA, revised 27 Dec 2001. [Downloadable!]
  6. Cori E. Uccello & Melissa M. Favreault & Karen E. Smith & Lawrence H. Thompson, 2004. "Simulating The Distributional Consequences Of Personal Accounts: Sensitivity To Annuitization Options," Working Papers, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College 2003-17, Center for Retirement Research. [Downloadable!]
  7. Annamaria Lusardi & Jonathan Skinner & Steven Venti, 2001. "Saving Puzzles and Saving Policies in the United States," NBER Working Papers 8237, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  8. Christian E. Weller, 2006. "The Recent Stock Market Fluctuations and Retirement Income Adequacy," Eastern Economic Journal, Eastern Economic Association, vol. 32(1), pages 67-81, Winter. [Downloadable!]
  9. Edward N. Wolff, 2005. "Is the Equalizing Effect of Retirement Wealth Wearing Off?," Economics Working Paper Archive wp_420, Levy Economics Institute, The. [Downloadable!]
  10. Purvi Sevak, 2002. "Wealth Shocks and Retirement Timing: Evidence from the Nineties," Working Papers wp027, University of Michigan, Michigan Retirement Research Center. [Downloadable!]
  11. Jennifer Ma, 2003. "Education Saving Incentives and Household Saving: Evidence from the 2000 TIAA-CREF Survey of Participant Finances," NBER Working Papers 9505, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  12. Heather Boushey & Christian E. Weller, 2006. "Inequality and Household Economic Hardship in the United States of America," Working Papers 18, United Nations, Department of Economics and Social Affairs. [Downloadable!]
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