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How workers use 401(k) plans: the participation, contribution, and withdrawal decisions

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Author Info
William F. Bassett
Michael J. Fleming
Anthony P. Rodrigues

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Abstract

This paper examines how workers use 401(k) plans by examining their participation, contribution, and withdrawal decisions. Sixty-five percent of eligible workers participate in 401(k) plans. Employee participation rises with income, age, job tenure, and education. While participation also rises if the employer matches contributions, 401(k) participation does not grow with the rate of matching. When pension plan assets are withdrawn in lump-sum distributions before retirement, just 28 percent of distribution recipients (representing 56 percent of distribution assets) roll over the withdrawn funds into tax-qualified savings plans. Our findings suggest that many workers, particularly those with low incomes, do not use 401(k) plans to save for retirement.

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Publisher Info
Paper provided by Federal Reserve Bank of New York in its series Staff Reports with number 38.

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Date of creation: 1998
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Handle: RePEc:fip:fednsr:38

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Keywords: Retirement ; Investments ; Cafeteria benefit plans;

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References listed on IDEAS
Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.:
  1. Gale, W.G. & scholz, J.K., 1992. "IRAS and Household Saving," Papers 9244, Tilburg - Center for Economic Research.
    Other versions:
  2. James M. Poterba & Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1995. "401(k) Plans and Tax-Deferred Saving," NBER Working Papers 4181, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  3. Leslie E. Papke, 1995. "Participation in and Contributions to 401(k) Pension Plans: Evidence om Plan Data," NBER Working Papers 4199, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  4. Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1987. "IRAs and Saving," NBER Chapters, in: The Effects of Taxation on Capital Accumulation, pages 7-52 National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  5. Papke, Leslie E. & Poterba, James M., 1995. "Survey evidence on employer match rates and employee saving behavior in 401(k) plans," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 49(3), pages 313-317, September. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  6. Leslie E. Papke & Mitchell Petersen & James M. Poterba, 1996. "Did 401(k) Plans Replace Other Employer Provided Pensions?," NBER Working Papers 4501, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  7. B. Douglas Bernheim & John B. Shoven, 1991. "National Saving and Economic Performance," NBER Books, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc, number bern91-2, September.
  8. Glenn R. Hubbard & Jonathan Skinner & Stephen P. Zeldes, . "Precautionary Saving and Social Insurance," Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research Working Papers 3-95, Wharton School Rodney L. White Center for Financial Research.
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  9. Poterba, James M & Venti, Steven F & Wise, David A, 1996. "How Retirement Saving Programs Increase Saving," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 91-112, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  10. Andrea L. Kusko & James M. Poterba & David W. Wilcox, 1994. "Employee Decisions with Respect to 401(k) Plans: Evidence From Individual-Level Data," NBER Working Papers 4635, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  11. Gruber, Jonathan & Poterba, James, 1994. "Tax Incentives and the Decision to Purchase Health Insurance: Evidence from the Self-Employed," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, MIT Press, vol. 109(3), pages 701-33, August. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  12. Poterba, James M. & Venti, Steven F. & Wise, David A., 1995. "Do 401(k) contributions crowd out other personal saving?," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(1), pages 1-32, September. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  13. Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1987. "Have IRAs Increased U.S. Saving?: Evidence from Consumer Expenditure Surveys," NBER Working Papers 2217, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
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  14. James M. Poterba & Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1995. "Lump-Sum Distributions from Retirement Saving Plans: Receipt and Utilization," NBER Working Papers 5298, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  15. Engen, Eric M & Gale, William G & Scholz, John Karl, 1996. "The Illusory Effects of Saving Incentives on Saving," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 113-38, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  16. Eric M. Engen & William G. Gale & John Karl Scholz, 1994. "Do Saving Incentives Work?," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, Economic Studies Program, The Brookings Institution, vol. 25(1994-1), pages 85-180. [Downloadable!]
  17. Parsons, Donald O., 1991. "The decline in private pension coverage in the United States," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 36(4), pages 419-423, August. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  18. Leslie E. Papke, 1996. "Are 401(k) Plans Replacing Other Employer-Provided Pensions? Evidence from Panel Data," NBER Working Papers 5736, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  19. Andrew A. Samwick & Jonathan Skinner, 1998. "How Will Defined Contribution Pension Plans Affect Retirement Income?," NBER Working Papers 6645, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  20. Bloom, David E & Freeman, Richard B, 1992. "The Fall in Private Pension Coverage in the United States," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 82(2), pages 539-45, May. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
Full references

Cited by:
(explanations, Please report citation or reference errors to , or , if you are the registered author of the cited work, log in to your RePEc Author Service profile, click on "citations" and make appropriate adjustments.)

  1. Mark Schreiner & Michael Sherraden & Margaret Clancy & Lissa Johnson & Jami Curley & Min Zahn & Sondra Beverly & Michal Grinstein-Weiss, 2001. "Asset Accumulation in Low-Resource Households: Evidence from Individual Development Accounts," Microeconomics 0108001, EconWPA, revised 27 Dec 2001. [Downloadable!]
    Other versions:
  2. John Beshears & James J. Choi & David Laibson & Brigitte C. Madrian, 2007. "The Impact of Employer Matching on Savings Plan Participation under Automatic Enrollment," NBER Working Papers 13352, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  3. James J. Choi & David Laibson & Brigitte C. Madrian, 2004. "Plan Design and 401(k) Savings Outcomes," NBER Working Papers 10486, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  4. James M. Poterba & Steven F. Venti & David A. Wise, 1999. "Pre-Retirement Cashouts and Foregone Retirement Saving: Implications for 401(k) Asset Accumulation," NBER Working Papers 7314, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  5. Engström, Stefan & Westerberg, Anna, 2003. "Which individuals make active investment decisions in the new Swedish pension system?," Working Paper Series in Economics and Finance 527, Stockholm School of Economics, revised 21 Jul 2003.
  6. Alicia H. Munnell & Annika SundÈn & Catherine Taylor, 2002. "What Determines 401(k) Participation And Contributions?," Working Papers, Center for Retirement Research at Boston College 2000-12, Center for Retirement Research. [Downloadable!]
  7. James J. Choi & David Laibson & Brigitte C. Madrian & Andrew Metrick, 2002. "Defined Contribution Pensions: Plan Rules, Participant Decisions, and the Path of Least Resistance," JCPR Working Papers 257, Northwestern University/University of Chicago Joint Center for Poverty Research.
    Other versions:
  8. Gary V. Engelhardt, 2000. "Have 401(k)s Raised Household Saving? Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study," Social and Economic Dimensions of an Aging Population Research Papers 33, McMaster University. [Downloadable!]
  9. Keenan Dworak-Fisher, 2008. "Encouraging Participation in 401(k) Plans: Reconsidering the Employer Match," Working Papers 420, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. [Downloadable!]
  10. Brigitte C. Madrian & Dennis F. Shea, 2000. "The Power of Suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) Participation and Savings Behavior," NBER Working Papers 7682, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
    Other versions:
  11. Eric M. Engen & William G. Gale & John Karl Scholz, 1996. "The Effects of Tax-Based Saving Incentives On Saving and Wealth," NBER Working Papers 5759, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  12. Irena Dushi & Marjorie Honig, 2007. "Are 401(k) Saving Rates Changing? Cohort/Period Evidence from the Health and Retirement Study," Working Papers wp160, University of Michigan, Michigan Retirement Research Center. [Downloadable!]
  13. James J. Choi & David Laibson & Brigitte C. Madrian & Andrew Metrick, 2004. "Saving or Retirement on the Path of Least Resistance," Levine's Bibliography 122247000000000606, UCLA Department of Economics. [Downloadable!]
  14. Scott Weisbenner, 1999. "Do pension plans with participant investment choice teach households to hold more equity?," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 1999-61, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.). [Downloadable!]
  15. Engen, Eric M & Gale, William G & Scholz, John Karl, 1996. "The Illusory Effects of Saving Incentives on Saving," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 10(4), pages 113-38, Fall. [Downloadable!] (restricted)
  16. Mark Schreiner, 2001. "Match Rates and Savings: Evidence from Individual Development Accounts," Microeconomics 0108003, EconWPA, revised 27 Dec 2001. [Downloadable!]
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