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School Closures and Effective In-Person Learning during COVID-19: When, Where, and for Whom

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  • André Kurmann
  • Étienne Lalé

Abstract

We combine cell phone data on foot-traffic to a highly representative sample of almost 70,000 schools in the U.S. with information on school learning modes to estimate a measure of effective in-person learning (EIPL) during the COVID-19 pandemic. We then match the data with various administrative records to document differences in EIPL over time, across regions, and by individual school characteristics. We find three main results. First, while EIPL dropped to below 20% of its pre-pandemic level across all regions of the U.S. during Spring 2020, EIPL varied widely during the 2020-21 school year, ranging from less than 20% in some cities on the West Coast to more than 80% in some cities in the South. Second, a substantial part of this variation is accounted for by observable school characteristics: (i) public schools provided on average less EIPL than private schools; (ii) schools in more affluent and educated localities and schools with a larger share of non-white students provided on average lower EIPL; and (iii) public schools with higher pre-pandemic spending per student, higher district-level Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding per student, and larger student enrollment provided on average lower EIPL. Third, the negative association of EIPL with affluence, education and pre-pandemic school spending is driven in large part by systematic regional differences that are correlated with political preferences. In contrast, the negative association of EIPL with a school’s share of non-white students and ESSER funding persists even within counties and controlling for local affluence and education. These patterns are important for our understanding of the factors that led to the large disparities in school closures and the impact of in-person learning loss during the pandemic on future educational attainment, income inequality, and economic growth. Nous apparions des données de mobilité obtenus à partir de téléphones portables à un échantillon représentatif de près de 70 000 écoles aux États-Unis, et combinons ces données avec des informations sur les modes d'apprentissage scolaire pour construire une mesure de l'apprentissage effectivement réalisé en présentiel (EIPL) pendant la pandémie de COVID-19. Nous augmentons ensuite ces données avec plusieurs bases de données administratives afin de documenter les différences d'EIPL dans le temps, selon les régions et en fonction des caractéristiques individuelles des écoles. Nous obtenons trois résultats principaux. Premièrement, alors que l'EIPL a chuté en deçà de 20 % par rapport à son niveau pré-pandémique au printemps 2020 dans toutes les régions des États-Unis, l'EIPL a ensuite fortement varié au cours de l'année scolaire 2020-2021, atteignant plus de 80 % dans certaines villes du sud alors qu’il se maintenait en deçà de 20 % dans certaines villes de la côte ouest. Deuxièmement, une part substantielle de cette variation est expliquée par les caractéristiques observables des écoles : (i) les écoles publiques ont fourni en moyenne moins d'EIPL que les écoles privées ; (ii) les écoles situées dans des localités plus riches et plus instruites et les écoles comptant une plus grande proportion d'élèves non blancs ont fourni en moyenne moins d'EIPL ; et (iii) les écoles publiques ayant des dépenses par élève plus élevées avant la pandémie, ayant reçu un montant d'aide d'urgence aux écoles élémentaires et secondaires (ESSER) par élève plus importante, et les écoles ayant un plus grand nombre d'élèves ont fourni en moyenne moins d'EIPL. Troisièmement, l'association négative de l'EIPL avec la richesse, l'éducation et les dépenses scolaires pré-pandémiques est due en grande partie à des différences régionales systématiques qui sont corrélées aux préférences politiques. En revanche, l'association négative de l'EIPL avec la part d'élèves non blancs d'une école et le financement ESSER persiste au sein même des comtés et en contrôlant la richesse et l'éducation locales. Ces tendances sont importantes pour comprendre les facteurs qui ont conduit aux disparités dans les fermetures d'écoles et pour évaluer l'impact de la perte d'apprentissage en présentiel pendant la pandémie sur le niveau d'éducation futur, les inégalités des revenus et la croissance économique.

Suggested Citation

  • André Kurmann & Étienne Lalé, 2021. "School Closures and Effective In-Person Learning during COVID-19: When, Where, and for Whom," CIRANO Working Papers 2021s-42, CIRANO.
  • Handle: RePEc:cir:cirwor:2021s-42
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln & Dirk Krueger & André Kurmann & Etienne Lalé & Alexander Ludwig & Irina Popova, 2023. "The Fiscal and Welfare Effects of Policy Responses to the Covid-19 School Closures," IMF Economic Review, Palgrave Macmillan;International Monetary Fund, vol. 71(1), pages 35-98, March.
    2. Youngsoo Jang & Minchul Yum, 2020. "Aggregate and Intergenerational Implications of School Closures: A Quantitative Assessment," CRC TR 224 Discussion Paper Series crctr224_2020_234v2, University of Bonn and University of Mannheim, Germany.
    3. Parolin, Zachary & Lee, Emma, 2020. "Large Socio-Economic, Geographic, and Demographic Disparities Exist in Exposure to School Closures and Distance Learning," OSF Preprints cr6gq, Center for Open Science.
    4. Agostinelli, Francesco & Doepke, Matthias & Sorrenti, Giuseppe & Zilibotti, Fabrizio, 2022. "When the great equalizer shuts down: Schools, peers, and parents in pandemic times," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 206(C).
    5. Victor Chernozhukov & Hiroyuki Kasahara & Paul Schrimpf, 2021. "The association of opening K–12 schools with the spread of COVID-19 in the United States: County-level panel data analysis," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 118(42), pages 2103420118-, October.
    6. Dena Bravata & Jonathan H. Cantor & Neeraj Sood & Christopher M. Whaley, 2021. "Back to School: The Effect of School Visits During COVID-19 on COVID-19 Transmission," NBER Working Papers 28645, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    7. Victor Chernozhukov & Hiroyuki Kasahara & Paul Schrimpf, 2021. "The Association of Opening K-12 Schools and Colleges with the Spread of Covid-19 in the United States: County-Level Panel Data Analysis," CESifo Working Paper Series 8929, CESifo.
    8. Thomas Dee & Elizabeth Huffaker & Cheryl Phillips & Eric Sagara, 2021. "The Revealed Preferences for School Reopening: Evidence from Public-School Disenrollment," NBER Working Papers 29156, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    9. Zachary Parolin & Emma K. Lee, 2021. "Large socio-economic, geographic and demographic disparities exist in exposure to school closures," Nature Human Behaviour, Nature, vol. 5(4), pages 522-528, April.
    10. Jang, Youngsoo & Yum, Minchul, 2020. "Aggregate and Intergenerational Implications of School Closures: A Quantitative Assessment," MPRA Paper 107593, University Library of Munich, Germany.
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    1. Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln & Dirk Krueger & André Kurmann & Etienne Lalé & Alexander Ludwig & Irina Popova, 2023. "The Fiscal and Welfare Effects of Policy Responses to the Covid-19 School Closures," IMF Economic Review, Palgrave Macmillan;International Monetary Fund, vol. 71(1), pages 35-98, March.
    2. Roy, Joydeep & Nguyen-Hoang, Phuong, 2022. "School enrollments during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of New York," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 219(C).
    3. Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln, 2022. "Covid-Induced School Closures in the US and Germany: Long-Term Distributional Effects," CESifo Working Paper Series 9698, CESifo.

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    More about this item

    Keywords

    COVID-19; School closures and reopenings; Effective in-person learning; Inequality; COVID-19; Fermetures et réouvertures d'écoles; Apprentissage efficace en présentiel; Inégalité;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • E24 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Consumption, Saving, Production, Employment, and Investment - - - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity
    • I24 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Education and Inequality

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