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Embedded Leverage
[Asset pricing with liquidity risk]

Author

Listed:
  • Andrea Frazzini
  • Lasse Heje Pedersen

Abstract

Many financial instruments are designed with embedded leverage, such as options and leveraged exchange-traded funds (ETFs). Embedded leverage alleviates investors’ leverage constraints, and, therefore, we hypothesize that embedded leverage lowers required returns. Consistent with this hypothesis, we find empirically that options and leveraged ETFs provide significant amounts of embedded leverage; this embedded leverage increases return volatility in proportion to the embedded leverage; and higher embedded leverage is associated with lower risk-adjusted returns. The results are statistically and economically significant, and we provide extensive robustness tests and discuss the broader implications of embedded leverage for financial economics. (JEL G02, G11, G12, G13, G14, G20)

Suggested Citation

  • Andrea Frazzini & Lasse Heje Pedersen, 2022. "Embedded Leverage [Asset pricing with liquidity risk]," The Review of Asset Pricing Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 12(1), pages 1-52.
    • Handle: RePEc:oup:rasset:v:12:y:2022:i:1:p:1-52.
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    File URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10.1093/rapstu/raab022
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    Citations

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    Cited by:

    1. John Geanakoplos & Lasse Heje Pedersen, 2012. "Monitoring Leverage," NBER Chapters, in: Risk Topography: Systemic Risk and Macro Modeling, pages 113-127, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    2. Chen, Zhuo & Lu, Andrea, 2017. "Slow diffusion of information and price momentum in stocks: Evidence from options markets," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 98-108.
    3. George M. Constantinides & Jens Carsten Jackwerth & Alexi Savov, 2013. "The Puzzle of Index Option Returns," The Review of Asset Pricing Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 3(2), pages 229-257.
    4. Alan Moreira & Tyler Muir, 2016. "Volatility Managed Portfolios," NBER Working Papers 22208, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    5. Paolo Guasoni & Eberhard Mayerhofer, 2015. "The Limits of Leverage," Papers 1506.02802, arXiv.org, revised Oct 2017.
    6. Jensen, Mads Vestergaard & Pedersen, Lasse Heje, 2016. "Early option exercise: Never say never," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 121(2), pages 278-299.
    7. Longarela, Iñaki R. & Mayoral, Silvia, 2015. "Quote inefficiency in options markets," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 23-36.

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    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • G0 - Financial Economics - - General
    • G1 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets
    • G12 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Asset Pricing; Trading Volume; Bond Interest Rates
    • G13 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Contingent Pricing; Futures Pricing

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