Is religiosity green in the United States?

There is wide support for the contention that religiosity is associated with negative attitudes towards the environment. However, whether such attitudes translate into specific actions remains largely ambiguous. This paper departs from previous research by examining the relationship between religiosity independently of affiliation and a more concrete measure of environmental outcomes, namely CO 2 emissions. Using U.S. state-level data and after controlling for other sources of emissions, religiosity is associated with higher CO2 emissions. Estimates are robust across alternative specifications and with the exclusion of potentially influential observations. Further tests show that the relationship between religiosity and the environment varies with the variables used to measure environmental impact. In fact, there is no association between religiosity and PM25 and SO2 emissions whereas a higher religiosity rate is associated with greater toxic releases into state waters. Furthermore, states with a larger share of Christians are associated with greater CO2 and SO2 emissions, whereas states with a larger share of Muslims are associated with lower toxic releases in state waters. This study provides greater clarity about religiosity as a complex and contentious anthropogenic source of environmental emissions, which can represent a serious threat to environmental sustainability.