The agrarian origins of early modern poor relief: English-French comparisons

"This paper will consider the evidence that is available for a comparison of welfare revenues in rural contexts in England and France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and some of the possible consequences for town-country relations, labour mobility and the social costs of economic development in the two societies. The paper reviews the urban bias that characterises investigations of welfare provisioning and poor relief revenues in seventeenth and eighteenth century France. It considers the sources of welfare funding and their geographical flows and distributions in France in a context in which a statutory system of revenue-raising for relief purposes was lacking. The paper works backwards in time from the evidence that is available depicting welfare funds collected by the French Committee of Mendicity in 1791. It also reviews the remarks of that committee about welfare provisioning in England under the poor law and some of the responses by English commentators to those remarks. The paper reviews the level of funds made available to bureaux de charité in late eighteenth century France as well as the role in funding played by ecclesiastical tithes and the tendency of those tithe-based revenues to flow from country to town. The towns will be assessed as sites for the distribution of tithe-based welfare funding as well as contexts for the charitable behaviour of aristocrats and bourgeoisie, who were principally domiciled in urban places. A discussion of regional variations in French expenditure is undertaken that can be compared with the estimates of expenditure under the English poor law as reported in various parliamentary enquiries from the mid-eighteenth century until the termination of the Napoleonic Wars. A contrast is drawn with England in which a predominant proportion of rate-based relief derives from a tax on property with owners of agrarian property contributing the bulk of that revenue. It will be shown that late sixteenth-century England revealed many features that made that society closer in its welfare practices to eighteenth century France in the matter of the generation of and use of welfare funds in town and country. Of particular significance is the emphasis placed upon the provisioning of relief, primarily within urban contexts, and a significantly greater place within those contexts for indoor forms of assistance underwritten by charitable giving as opposed to obligatory, tax-based sources of revenue. However, by the early eighteenth century revenue raised in English rural communities for welfare purposes and expenditure per capita invariably exceeded that raised and spent per capita in towns. The social distribution of rate-payments will be considered with particular reference to regional contrasts in agrarian property sizes and proletarianization of agrarian labour. Furthermore discussion will be undertaken of the extent to which the net flow of rate-based funds was from the agrarian towards the urban industrial sector. The implications of this charge upon the rural sector will be assessed in relation to an assessment of the welfare costs carried by the urban sector. Furthermore the spatial variations in funding will be assessed with reference to flows of labour and flows of welfare funds during periods of economic recession or harvest failure with reference particularly to epidemiological patterns and life chances. The paper concludes with some discussion of the implications of these developments for the charges carried by the agrarian sector not only for the meeting of welfare needs in an emerging agrarian capitalist economy, but the extent to which the geographical bias in England entailed significant underwriting by rural economies and property owners of rapidly rising urban and industrial welfare needs. Some final thoughts are offered on the implications of the arguments developed in the paper for the wider debate about the emergence and the regional geography of agrarian capitalism in England."