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The Effect of Lead Exposure on Children’s Learning in the Developing World: A Meta-Analysis★

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  • Lee Crawfurd
  • Rory Todd
  • Susannah Hares
  • Justin Sandefur
  • Rachel Silverman Bonnifield

Abstract

Around half of children in low-income countries have elevated blood-lead levels. What role does lead play in explaining low educational outcomes in these settings? We conduct a new systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies on the relationship between lead exposure and learning outcomes. Adjusting for observable confounds and publication bias yields a benchmark estimate of astandard-deviation reduction in learning per natural log unit of blood lead. As all estimates are non-experimental, we present evidence on the likely magnitude of unobserved confounding, and summarize results from a smaller set of natural experiments. Our benchmark estimate accounts for over a fifth of the gap in learning outcomes between rich and poor countries, and implies moderate learning gains from targeted interventions for highly exposed groups ( 0.1 standard deviations) and modest learning gains ( standard deviations) from broader public health campaigns.

Suggested Citation

  • Lee Crawfurd & Rory Todd & Susannah Hares & Justin Sandefur & Rachel Silverman Bonnifield, 2025. "The Effect of Lead Exposure on Children’s Learning in the Developing World: A Meta-Analysis★," The World Bank Research Observer, World Bank, vol. 40(2), pages 229-260.
    • Handle: RePEc:oup:wbrobs:v:40:y:2025:i:2:p:229-260.
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    File URL: http://hdl.handle.net/10.1093/wbro/lkae010
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