Activation of Persulfate by Sulfide-Modified Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Supported on Biochar for 2,4-Dichlorophenol Degradation: Efficiency, Sustainability, and Mechanism Investigation

The activation of persulfate (PS) to oxidize and degrade 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) in aqueous solution represents a prevalent advanced oxidation technology. This study established a PS activation system using sulfide-modified nanoscale zero-valent iron supported on biochar (S-nZVI@BC). The optimal conditions included a PS:2,4-DCP mass ratio of 70:1 and S-nZVI@BC:PS of 1.5:1. The activator had excellent stability after being reused five times, which lead to high cost-effectiveness and sustainable usability. This system exhibited broad pH adaptability (3–11), with enhanced efficiency under acidic/neutral conditions. Chloride ion, nitrate, and carbonate had effects during the degradation. During the initial degradation phase, S-nZVI@BC played a primary role, with a greater contribution rate of adsorption than reduction. Fe 0 played a dominant role in the PS activation process; reactive species—including HO•, SO 4 • − , and O 2 • − —were identified as key agents in subsequent degradation stages. The overall degradation processes comprised three distinct stages: dechlorination, ring-opening, and mineralization.