Spatial Distribution of Cadmium in Avocado-Cultivated Soils of Peru: Influence of Parent Material, Exchangeable Cations, and Trace Elements

Potentially toxic elements such as cadmium (Cd) in agricultural soils represent a global concern due to their toxicity and potential accumulation in the food chain. However, our understanding of cadmium’s complex sources and the mechanisms controlling its spatial distribution across diverse edaphic and geological contexts remains limited, particularly in underexplored agricultural regions. Our study aimed to assess the total accumulated Cd content in soils under avocado cultivation and its association with edaphic, geochemical, and geomorphological variables. To this end, we considered the total concentrations of other metals and explored their associations to gain a better understanding of Cd’s spatial distribution. We analyzed 26 physicochemical properties, the total concentrations of 22 elements (including heavy and trace metals such as As, Ba, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sr, Tl, V, and Zn and major elements such as Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, and Na), and six geospatial variables in 410 soil samples collected from various avocado-growing regions in Peru in order to identity potential associations that could help explain the spatial patterns of Cd. For data analysis, we applied (1) univariate statistics (skewness, kurtosis); (2) multivariate methods such as Spearman correlations and principal component analysis (PCA); (3) spatial modeling using the Geodetector tool; and (4) non-parametric testing (Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test). Our results indicated (1) the presence of hotspots with Cd concentrations exceeding 3 mg·kg −1 , displaying a leptokurtic distribution (skewness = 7.3); (2) dominant accumulation mechanisms involving co-adsorption and cation competition (Na + , Ca 2+ ), as well as geogenic co-accumulation with Zn and Pb; and (3) significantly higher Cd concentrations in Leptosols derived from Cretaceous intermediate igneous rocks (diorites/tonalites), averaging 1.33 mg kg −1 compared to 0.20 mg·kg −1 in alluvial soils ( p < 0.0001). The factors with the greatest explanatory power (q > 15%, Geodetector) were the Zn content, parent material, geological age, and soil taxonomic classification. These findings provide edaphogenetic insights that can inform soil cadmium (Cd) management strategies, including recommendations to avoid establishing new plantations in areas with a high risk of Cd accumulation. Such approaches can enhance the efficiency of mitigation programs and reduce the risks to export markets.