Hierarchical Structure of the Entrepreneurial Career Competency Instrument: Evidence from Frequentist and Bayesian Bifactor Structural Equation Modelling

Robust measurement of entrepreneurial competencies (ECs) is crucial for entrepreneurship education, yet their internal structure remains theoretically contested and empirically underexamined. This study examined whether the four-factor Entrepreneurial Career Competency Instrument (ECCI) exhibits a hierarchical (bifactor) structure among South African entrepreneurs. Using two non-probability samples (N = 1305; N = 280), we analysed competing models, including a bifactor exploratory structural equation model (ESEM). The selected 56-item bifactor ESEM solution was examined for conceptual replicability in the smaller sample using Bayesian structural equation modelling (BSEM) with informative priors and sensitivity analyses to address small-sample uncertainty. Our findings revealed a theoretically supported hierarchical structure with a strong general factor and distinct specific factors: entrepreneurial career mindset, innovativeness, motivation, and implementation, enhancing the interpretation of scores. This study guides ECCI usage by suggesting total scores for broad assessments and domain scores for diagnostic feedback. Methodologically, the findings demonstrate that combining frequentist and Bayesian approaches across samples strengthened structural validity and provided insights into evaluating imprecise responses to self-report measures and addressing sampling constraints. Overall, this work contributes a robust structural model of the ECCI and enriches the EC literature, serving as a framework for refining, testing and applying attribute-based EC measures in diverse contexts.