Male out-migration and its consequences on left-behind members: The case of Nepal

This paper examines the impact of paternal migration on the outcomes of left-behind wives and children in Nepal, a context characterized by high rates of male out-migration and persistent patriarchal norms. Using data from the Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS) 2010/11, the analysis focuses on multiple dimensions, including education, time use, and decision-making. To address selection into migration, an instrumental variable approach using migration networks as an instrument is employed. Given concerns about the instrument’s failure in satisfying the exclusion restriction, additional tests were conducted to increase the credibility of the estimates. The results indicate that migration leads to a reallocation of responsibilities within the household. Left-behind wives assume greater involvement in both economic activities and final decision-making, although these changes appear to be partly driven by the husband’s absence and may not reflect sustained empowerment. Children’s outcomes are strongly gendered: daughters experience increased participation in household and agricultural work, while sons benefit from reduced work burdens and improved educational outcomes. Overall, the findings highlight the complex and uneven effects of paternal migration. While migration may create opportunities for women to take on new roles, it also reinforces existing gender inequalities, particularly for daughters. By jointly analyzing multiple dimensions of household outcomes, this paper provides a more comprehensive understanding of how migration reshapes intra-household dynamics and contributes to the broader debate on migration and gender in developing contexts.