Unpacking the penetration of agrochemicals in China: The commodification of agricultural inputs and the invisible dispossession of smallholders

China has transitioned from a negligible user of agrochemicals to one of the world’s largest consumers, producers and exporters within just a few decades. The rapid increase in agrochemical use– often amounting to overuse – has raised significant concerns about food safety and environmental degradation. Despite its importance, the underlying dynamics driving the swift expansion of China’s agrochemical sector remain insufficiently studied. How have traditional farming practices of smallholders, sustained for millennia, shifted so quietly yet dramatically in recent decades? What are the implications of agrochemicals’ penetration into rural society in China? Drawing on field research conducted across sites from 2012 to 2023, this article addresses these questions. It demonstrates that agrochemicals were initially introduced in China under a planned economy, provided by the state as public goods rather than commodities, and were eagerly embraced by agricultural producers. Inputs were effectively distributed to producers through top-down networks. However, following market-oriented reforms and the commodification of these inputs, agrochemical companies leveraged and cultivated these networks into a ‘hierarchical exclusive distribution network’ targeting smallholders. Alongside these top-down networks, rural social networks were also mobilized in input distribution, facilitating smallholders’ acceptance of agrochemicals. Consequently, while smallholders retain their land, they are invisibly dispossessed as ‘producers’ and retained as ‘consumers’ for inputs.