Investigating the impact of flexible working arrangements on departure time choice and time-based congestion charging

Previous studies have examined the effects of time flexibility and congestion charging on departure time choices. However, no study has explored the joint impact of various flexible working arrangements (FWAs) and congestion charging on departure time choices. Furthermore, considering the accelerated adoption of FWAs and shift in travel behaviour after the pandemic, there is a critical need for an effective time-based congestion charging policy that accounts for these changes. This study addresses these gaps by investigating workers' travel behavioural changes in response to workplace and time flexibility, and by evaluating the income-based value of time (iVOT) regarding departure time choices and FWAs’ adoption. Additionally, it examines the effectiveness of integrating time-based congestion charging with FWAs to mitigate traffic challenges. A Hybrid Choice Model (HCM) with three level Nested Logit structure, was developed to jointly analyse departure time choices and FWAs for work trips between 6:00 and 10:00, using data collected in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, from June 10 to July 20, 2023. Results indicate that fixed-time non-teleworkers prefer the 7:00–7:30 slot, demonstrating the highest utility, iVOT, and willingness to adopt FWAs. Flex-time non-teleworkers and hybrid workers prefer 7:30–8:00 and 8:00–8:30 slots, respectively. Offering FWAs to fixed-time non-teleworkers travelling between 7:00 and 7:30 can help manage travel demand. Time-based congestion charges affect departure decisions differently across income groups and FWAs. Integrating time-based congestion charges with FWAs may help reduce peak-hour traffic, support sustainability goals, and address equity concerns across income groups.