Secure journeys or perceived peril? Examining gender differences in day-night public transport decision-making in India using PLS-SEM multi-group analysis

Gender disparities in public transport safety perceptions create significant barriers to equitable urban mobility, particularly affecting women's access to economic and social opportunities in India. While existing studies document safety concerns in specific cities, quantitative research examining gender-temporal intersections across diverse urban contexts remains limited. This study examines gender differences in safety perceptions and public transport usage intentions during daytime and nighttime using PLS-SEM with multi-group analysis. A nationwide survey (December 2024-May 2025) yielded 726 responses from frequent users (474 males, 252 females) across Tier-1, Tier-2, and Tier-3 Indian cities, measuring service quality, safety assessments, social support, habitual usage, and intention to use public transport using standardized 5-point Likert scales. Safety perception emerged as the strongest predictor of behavioural intention, with women demonstrating significantly higher sensitivity than men. Substantial nighttime disparities were observed, with women reporting lower safety scores than men, representing a critical perception gap. Multi-group analysis revealed gender-moderated relationships: women showed stronger service quality sensitivity in forming habitual patterns, while men demonstrated greater social support reliance. Past experiences negatively influenced men's safety perceptions but not women's, suggesting persistent female vigilance. Infrastructure preferences revealed women's strong preference for female operators and surveillance cameras. Findings necessitate gender-differentiated approaches, including enhanced nighttime security, workforce diversification, comprehensive service quality improvements, and systemic policy reforms integrating gender considerations throughout transportation planning from design through operations.